610 Medizin und Gesundheit
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Bei der Kultivierung humaner artikulärer Chondrozyten für eine mögliche therapeutische Anwendung gilt es, deren besondere zellphysiologische Eigenschaften zu berücksichtigen, um ein zell- und molekularbiologisch hochwertiges Transplantat erzielen zu können. Stickstoffmonoxid (NO) gilt als ein wichtiger Faktor für die Homöostase der chondrogenen Extrazellulärmatrix, der für die Funktion des hyalinen Gelenkknorpels entscheidenden Gewebekomponente. Es stellt bisherigen Untersuchungen nach einen wichtigen Regulator im sensiblen Gleichgewicht zwischen der Synthese knorpelspezifischer Matrixproteine und dem Matrixabbau dar. Trotz dieser Bedeutung ist das Wissen über die Expression der NO-generierenden Enzyme in humanen artikulären Chondrozyten, insbesondere unter Kulturbedingungen, sehr begrenzt. Des Weiteren fehlen Erkenntnisse über den Einfluss von NO auf den Differenzierungsstatus dieser Zellen. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war daher die Charakterisierung der Genexpression adulter Gelenkknorpelzellen während deren Expansion und anschließender Redifferenzierung in einem in vitro-Modell. Das Hauptaugenmerk wurde hierbei auf die 3 NOS-Isoformen sowie die beiden Matrixproteine Kollagen Typ II und Aggrecan gelegt. In Zusatzversuchen wurde die Bedeutung von NO für den Metabolismus sowie für Differenzierungsvorgänge humaner artikulärer Chondrozyten untersucht. Hierbei sollten funktionelle Zusammenhänge aufgezeigt und regulative Abhängigkeiten auf der Ebene der Transkription identifiziert werden. Humane artikuläre Chondrozyten wurden hierfür unter standardisierten Bedingungen enzymatisch aus Knorpelgewebe von Femurköpfen isoliert. Nach Expansion der Zellen in zweidimensionaler Monolayerkultur wurden die amplifizierten Zellen in Form dreidimensionaler Zellaggregate in einem chondrogenen Differenzierungsmedium rekultiviert. Veränderungen des zellulären Phänotyps wurden morphologisch, histochemisch, immunhistochemisch und mittels RT-PCR auf Genexpressionsebene verfolgt. Im Verlauf der Expansion konnte eine funktionelle und morphologische Dedifferenzierung der Chondrozyten dokumentiert werden. Durch 21tägige Rekultivierung in einem definierten chondrogenen Differenzierungsmedium konnten die Zellen ihre, zuvor verloren gegangenen knorpelspezifischen Eigenschaften wieder ausbilden (Redifferenzierung). Die Analyse der Genexpression der NOS-Isoformen humaner artikulärer Chondrozyten auf RNA-Ebene ergab neben der, in der Literatur bereits beschriebenen induzierbaren NOS die Expression zweier weiterer Isoformen, der neuronalen und der endothelialen NOS. In weiteren Versuchen wurde der Effekt verschiedener Mediatoren auf die Genexpression der Gelenkknorpelzellen beobachtet. So wurden Zellaggregate während verschiedener Phasen der Redifferenzierung mit rhIL-1 beta bzw. rhTNF alpha stimuliert. Die Chondrozyten reagierten darauf mit einer starker Induktion der induzierbaren NOS sowie mit einem konsekutiven Anstieg der NO-Freisetzung. Die eNOS-Expression wurde negativ reguliert. Auf die Konzentration der nNOS-Transkripte hatten beide Zytokine keinen messbaren Einfluss. Zudem konnte auf diesen Reiz hin eine drastische Reduktion der Kollagen Typ II und Aggrecan-Expression festgestellt werden. In Zusatzversuchen, bei denen u.a. ein NO-Donor und ein NOS-Inhibitor zum Einsatz kamen wurde dieser Effekt genauer erforscht. Aus den gewonnenen Ergebnissen kann geschlossen werden, dass der Effekt von IL-1 beta und TNF alpha auf die Synthese der beiden wichtigen Matrixproteine Kollagen Typ II und Aggrecan zumindest teilweise über NO vermittelt wird. In mehren Versuchsreihen gelang es des Weiteren die besondere Bedeutung von NO für die Zelldifferenzierung zu belegen. Die Modifikation des verwendeten chondrogenen Differenzierungsmediums durch Zusatz des NOS-Inhibitors NG-Amino-L-Arginin (L-NAA) führte zu einer deutlich früheren bzw. stärkeren Expression der beiden chondrogenen Markergene Kollagen Typ II und Aggrecan.
Integrins are transmembrane receptors transmitting mechanical signals from the extracellular matrix (ECM) to the cytoskeleton (outside-in-signaling). Many molecular defects in the link between cytoskeleton and ECM are known to induce cardiomyopathies. alpha v integrin appears to play a major role in several processes relevant to remodeling, such as binding and activation of matrix metalloproteinases as well as regulation of cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation. We hypothesized that alpha v integrin-mediated signaling is required for the compensatory hypertrophy after aortic banding (AB) and associated with the modulation of ECM protein expression. Mice were treated in vivo with a specific integrin alpha v inhibitor or vehicle via osmotic minipumps starting 1 day prior to aortic banding (AB). At day 2 and day 7 following AB or sham-operation, the mice were examined by echocardiography and hemodynamic analyses were performed. Treatment of alpha v Integrin inhibitor led to a dilated cardiomyopathy and congestive heart failure in AB mice (dilated left ventricle, depressed LV function, and pulmonary congestion), but not to hypertrophy as observed in mice without inhibitor treatment. Investigation of downstream signaling revealed significant activation of the p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK), the Extracellular signal-Regulated Kinases 1 and 2 (Erk 1/2), Focal Adhesion Kinase (FAK) and tyrosine-phosphorylation of c-Src in mice 7 days after AB. This response was blunted in mice treated with integrin alpha v inhibitor. Microarrays probing for a total of 96 cell adhesion and ECM genes identified various genomic targets of integrin alpha v mediated signalling. 7 days after AB 18 ECM genes were up-regulated more than 2-fold (n=6), e.g. collagen (8.11 ± 2.2), fibronectin (2.32 ± 0.94), secreted protein, acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC, 3.78 ± 0.12), A disintegrin-like and metalloprotease (reprolysin type) with trombospondin type 1 (Adamts-1, 3.51 ± 0.81) and Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 2 (TIMP2, 2.23 ± 0.98), whereas this up-regulation was abolished in mice that were treatd by integrin alpha v inhibitor via mini pumps. We conclude that signaling downstream of integrin alpha v is mediated by the MAPK, FAK and c-Src pathways leading to an up-regulation of extracelluar matrix components necessary for the compensatory response of the heart under a condition of pressure overload.
Interleukin-4 (IL-4) is an anti-inflammatory and analgesic cytokine that induces opioid receptor transcription. We investigated IL-4 knockout (ko) mice to characterize their pain behavior before and after chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve as a model for neuropathic pain. We investigated opioid responsivity and measured cytokine and opioid receptor gene expression in the peripheral and central nervous system (PNS, CNS) of IL-4 ko mice in comparison with wildtype (wt) mice. Naïve IL-4 ko mice displayed tactile allodynia (wt: 0.45 g; ko: 0.18 g; p<0.001), while responses to heat and cold stimuli and to muscle pressure were not different. No compensatory changes in the gene expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF), IL-1β, IL-10, and IL-13 were found in the PNS and CNS of naïve IL-4 ko mice. However, IL-1β gene expression was stronger in the sciatic nerve of IL-4 ko mice (p<0.001) 28 days after CCI and only IL-4 ko mice had elevated IL-10 gene expression (p = 0.014). Remarkably, CCI induced TNF (p<0.01), IL-1β (p<0.05), IL-10 (p<0.05), and IL-13 (p<0.001) gene expression exclusively in the ipsilateral spinal cord of IL-4 ko mice. The compensatory overexpression of the anti-inflammatory and analgesic cytokines IL-10 and IL-13 in the spinal cord of IL-4 ko mice may explain the lack of genotype differences for pain behavior after CCI. Additionally, CCI induced gene expression of μ, κ, and δ opioid receptors in the contralateral cortex and thalamus of IL-4 ko mice, paralleled by fast onset of morphine analgesia, but not in wt mice. We conclude that a lack of IL-4 leads to mechanical sensitivity; the compensatory hyperexpression of analgesic cytokines and opioid receptors after CCI, in turn, protects IL-4 ko mice from enhanced pain behavior after nerve lesion.
The volatile anesthetic desflurane (DES) effectively reduces cardiac infarct size following experimental ischemia/reperfusion injury in the mouse heart. We hypothesized that endogenous estrogens play a role as mediators of desflurane-induced preconditioning against myocardial infarction. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that desflurane effects local estrogen synthesis by modulating enzyme aromatase expression and activity in the mouse heart. Aromatase metabolizes testosterone to 17b- estradiol (E2) and thereby significantly contributes to local estrogen synthesis. We tested aromatase effects in acute myocardial infarction model in male mice. The animals were randomized and subjected to four groups which were pre-treated with the selective aromatase inhibitor anastrozole (A group) and DES alone (DES group) or in combination (A+DES group) for 15 minutes prior to surgical intervention whereas the control group received 0.9% NaCl (CON group). All animals were subjected to 45 minutes ischemia following 180 minutes reperfusion. Anastrozole blocked DES induced preconditioning and increased infarct size compared to DES alone (37.94615.5% vs. 17.163.62%) without affecting area at risk and systemic hemodynamic parameters following ischemia/reperfusion. Protein localization studies revealed that aromatase was abundant in the murine cardiovascular system with the highest expression levels in endothelial and smooth muscle cells. Desflurane application at pharmacological concentrations efficiently upregulated aromatase expression in vivo and in vitro. We conclude that desflurane efficiently regulates aromatase expression and activity which might lead to increased local estrogen synthesis and thus preserve cellular integrity and reduce cardiac damage in an acute myocardial infarction model.
Die Alzheimer Demenz und der Morbus Parkinson als häufigste neurodegenerative Erkrankungen führen zu schwerer Behinderung, zu Pflegebedürftigkeit und meist über Komplikationen zum Tod. Ihr langer Verlauf stellt für Betroffene, Angehörige sowie für das Gesundheitssystem eine enorme Belastung dar. Da die Ätiologie der Alzheimer Demenz und des Morbus Parkinson sowie der meisten neurodegenerativen Krankheiten im Einzelnen nicht bekannt sind und phänotypische Überschneidungen auftreten, sind die Möglichkeiten der eindeutigen Diagnosestellung häufig eingeschränkt oder erst postmortal möglich. Um eine Therapie bei Auftreten der ersten klinischen Symptome zu beginnen oder eine Voraussage der Erkrankungen zu ermöglichen, ist eine sensitive und validierte Frühdiagnostik nötig. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war deshalb, auf der Genebene potentielle pathogenetische Verbindungen, mögliche diagnostische Markerproteine sowie Zusammenhänge zum zeitlichen Verlauf beider Krankheiten zu identifizieren. Dafür wurde mit der Real-Time Polymerasekettenreaktion die Expression von 44 Genen anhand von post mortem Gehirngewebe von Patienten mit Alzheimer Demenz, Morbus Parkionson im Vergleich zu Gesunden aus den vier Hirnregionen Hippocampus, Gyrus frontalis medialis, Gyrus temporalis medialis und Kleinhirn untersucht. Im Resultat zeigen die Gene mit einer statistisch signifikant veränderten Expression, z. B. Glutamattransporter, olfaktorische Rezeptoren oder vakuoläre Sortierungsproteine, bei beiden Erkrankungen gehäuft gleichsinnige Änderungen. Anhand dieser Ergebnisse ist eine kausale Verknüpfung des veränderten Genmetabolismus mit der ablaufenden Neurodegeneration zu vermuten. Zusätzlich wird die Hypothese gemeinsamer pathogenetischer Mechanismen beider Erkrankungen untermauert. Zusammenhänge der Genexpression zum zeitlichen Verlauf der Erkrankungen werden nur vereinzelt belegt, bekräftigten dann aber die Annahme einer Assoziation zu den degenerativen Prozessen. Die Identifizierung eines spezifischen Biomarkers für eine der beiden Erkrankungen war ein Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit. Aufgrund seiner Expressionsänderung im Hippocampus bei Patienten mit Alzheimer Demenz könnte das BACE1-Gen (Beta site APP cleaving enzyme 1), das dort eine signifikante Expressionsabnahme zeigt, als solcher für dieses Patientenkollektiv diskutiert werden. Die häufig in dieser Arbeit im Hippocampus detektierten, signifikanten Expressionsänderungen, weisen zudem auf eine besondere Affektion dieser Hirnregion bei der Alzheimer Demenz als auch beim Morbus Parkinson hin. Des Weiteren werden in der vorliegenden Arbeit im Kleinhirn, einer Hirnregion, in der bei beiden Erkrankungen scheinbar kaum oder keine pathologischen Prozesse ablaufen, gehäuft und dann ähnliche Änderungen der Genexpression gemessen, die für eine Beteiligung des Kleinhirns bei beiden Krankheiten sprechen, deren Bedeutung bislang unklar ist.
Compared to transcriptional activation, other mechanisms of gene regulation have not been widely exploited for the control of transgenes. One barrier to the general use and application of alternative splicing is that splicing-regulated transgenes have not been shown to be reliably and simply designed. Here, we demonstrate that a cassette bearing a suicide exon can be inserted into a variety of open reading frames (ORFs), generating transgenes whose expression is activated by exon skipping in response to a specific protein inducer. The surprisingly minimal sequence requirements for the maintenance of splicing fidelity and regulation indicate that this splicing cassette can be used to regulate any ORF containing one of the amino acids Glu, Gln or Lys. Furthermore, a single copy of the splicing cassette was optimized by rational design to confer robust gene activation with no background expression in plants. Thus, conditional splicing has the potential to be generally useful for transgene regulation.
Although progenitor cells of the conducting airway have been spatially localized and some insights have been gained regarding their molecular phenotype, relatively little is known about the mechanisms regulating their maintenance, activation, and differentiation. This study investigates the potential roles of E-cadherin in mouse Clara cells, as these cells were shown to represent the progenitor/stem cells of the conducting airways and have been implicated as the cell of origin of human non-small cell lung cancer. Postnatal inactivation of E-cadherin affected Clara cell differentiation and compromised airway regeneration under injury conditions. In steady-state adult lung, overexpression of the dominant negative E-cadherin led to an expansion of the bronchiolar stem cells and decreased differentiation concomitant with canonical Wnt signaling activation. Expansion of the bronchiolar stem cell pool was associated with an incessant proliferation of neuroepithelial body-associated Clara cells that ultimately gave rise to bronchiolar hyperplasia. Despite progressive hyperplasia, only a minority of the mice developed pulmonary solid tumors, suggesting that the loss of E-cadherin function leads to tumor formation when additional mutations are sustained. The present study reveals that E-cadherin plays a critical role in the regulation of proliferation and homeostasis of the epithelial cells lining the conducting airways.
Acute bacterial meningitis is a life-threatening disease in humans. Discussed as entry sites for pathogens into the brain are the blood-brain and the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCSFB). Although human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMEC) constitute a well established human in vitro model for the blood-brain barrier, until now no reliable human system presenting the BCSFB has been developed. Here, we describe for the first time a functional human BCSFB model based on human choroid plexus papilloma cells (HIBCPP), which display typical hallmarks of a BCSFB as the expression of junctional proteins and formation of tight junctions, a high electrical resistance and minimal levels of macromolecular flux when grown on transwell filters. Importantly, when challenged with the zoonotic pathogen Streptococcus suis or the human pathogenic bacterium Neisseria meningitidis the HIBCPP show polar bacterial invasion only from the physiologically relevant basolateral side. Meningococcal invasion is attenuated by the presence of a capsule and translocated N. meningitidis form microcolonies on the apical side of HIBCPP opposite of sites of entry. As a functionally relevant human model of the BCSFB the HIBCPP offer a wide range of options for analysis of disease-related mechanisms at the choroid plexus epithelium, especially involving human pathogens.
Background: Alveolar echinococcosis, caused by Echinococcus multilocularis larvae, is a chronic disease associated with considerable modulation of the host immune response. Dendritic cells (DC) are key effectors in shaping the immune response and among the first cells encountered by the parasite during an infection. Although it is assumed that E. multilocularis, by excretory/secretory (E/S)-products, specifically affects DC to deviate immune responses, little information is available on the molecular nature of respective E/S-products and their mode of action. Methodology/Principal Findings: We established cultivation systems for exposing DC to live material from early (oncosphere), chronic (metacestode) and late (protoscolex) infectious stages. When co-incubated with Echinococcus primary cells, representing the invading oncosphere, or metacestode vesicles, a significant proportion of DC underwent apoptosis and the surviving DC failed to mature. In contrast, DC exposed to protoscoleces upregulated maturation markers and did not undergo apoptosis. After pre-incubation with primary cells and metacestode vesicles, DC showed a strongly impaired ability to be activated by the TLR ligand LPS, which was not observed in DC pre-treated with protoscolex E/S-products. While none of the larvae induced the secretion of pro-inflammatory IL-12p70, the production of immunosuppressive IL-10 was elevated in response to primary cell E/S-products. Finally, upon incubation with DC and naive T-cells, E/S-products from metacestode vesicles led to a significant expansion of Foxp3+ T cells in vitro. Conclusions: This is the first report on the induction of apoptosis in DC by cestode E/S-products. Our data indicate that the early infective stage of E. multilocularis is a strong inducer of tolerance in DC, which is most probably important for generating an immunosuppressive environment at an infection phase in which the parasite is highly vulnerable to host attacks. The induction of CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ T cells through metacestode E/S-products suggests that these cells fulfill an important role for parasite persistence during chronic echinococcosis.
Background: Recent data suggest that cancer stem cells (CSCs) play an important role in cancer, as these cells possess enhanced tumor-forming capabilities and are responsible for relapses after apparently curative therapies have been undertaken. Hence, novel cancer therapies will be needed to test for both tumor regression and CSC targeting. The use of oncolytic vaccinia virus (VACV) represents an attractive anti-tumor approach and is currently under evaluation in clinical trials. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate whether VACV does kill CSCs that are resistant to irradiation and chemotherapy.
Methods: Cancer stem-like cells were identified and separated from the human breast cancer cell line GI-101A by virtue of increased aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 (ALDH1) activity as assessed by the ALDEFLUOR assay and cancer stem cell-like features such as chemo-resistance, irradiation-resistance and tumor-initiating were confirmed in cell culture and in animal models. VACV treatments were applied to both ALDEFLUOR-positive cells in cell culture and in xenograft tumors derived from these cells. Moreover, we identified and isolated CD44\(^+\)CD24\(^+\)ESA\(^+\) cells from GI-101A upon an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). These cells were similarly characterized both in cell culture and in animal models.
Results: We demonstrated for the first time that the oncolytic VACV GLV-1h68 strain replicated more efficiently in cells with higher ALDH1 activity that possessed stem cell-like features than in cells with lower ALDH1 activity. GLV-1h68 selectively colonized and eventually eradicated xenograft tumors originating from cells with higher ALDH1 activity. Furthermore, GLV-1h68 also showed preferential replication in CD44\(^+\)CD24\(^+\)ESA\(^+\) cells derived from GI-101A upon an EMT induction as well as in xenograft tumors originating from these cells that were more tumorigenic than CD44\(^+\)CD24\(^-\)ESA\(^+\) cells.
Conclusions: Taken together, our findings indicate that GLV-1h68 efficiently replicates and kills cancer stem-like cells. Thus, GLV-1h68 may become a promising agent for eradicating both primary and metastatic tumors, especially tumors harboring cancer stem-like cells that are resistant to chemo and/or radiotherapy and may be responsible for recurrence of tumors.