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- N-7500-2014 (1)
In the context of this thesis, the novel method soft X-ray energy-dispersive NEXAFS spectroscopy was explored and utilized to investigate intermolecular coupling and post-growth processes with a temporal resolution of seconds. 1,4,5,8- naphthalene tetracarboxylic acid dianhydride (NTCDA)multilayer films were the chosen model system for these investigations. The core hole-electron correlation in coherently coupled molecules was studied by means of energy-dispersive near-edge X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy. A transient phase was found which exists during the transition between a disordered condensed phase and the bulk structure. This phase is characterized by distinct changes in the spectral line shape and energetic position of the X-ray absorption signal at the C K-edge. The findings were explained with the help of theoretical models based on the coupling of transition dipole moments, which are well established for optically excited systems. In consequence, the experimental results provides evidence for a core hole-electron pair delocalized over several molecules. Furthermore, the structure formation of NTCDA multilayer films on Ag(111) surfaces was investigated. With time-resolved and energy-dispersive NEXAFS experiments the intensity evolution in s- and p-polarization showed a very characteristic behavior. By combining these findings with the results of time-dependent photoemission measurements, several sub-processes were identified in the post- growth behavior. Upon annealing, the amorphous but preferentially flat-lying molecules flip into an upright orientation. After that follows a phase characterized by strong intermolecular coupling. Finally, three-dimensional islands are established. Employing the Kolmogorov-Johnson-Mehl-Avrami model, the activation energies of the sub-processes were determined.
Besides established, conventional inorganic photovoltaics—mainly based on silicon—organic photovoltaics (OPV) are well on the way to represent a lowcost, environment friendly, complementary technology in near future. Production costs, solar cell lifetime and performance are the relevant factors which need to be optimized to enable a market launch of OPV. In this work, the efficiency of organic solar cells and their limitation due to charge carrier recombination are investigated. To analyze solar cells under operating conditions, time-resolved techniques such as transient photovoltage (TPV), transient photocurrent (TPC) and charge extraction (CE) are applied in combination with time delayed collection field (TDCF) measurements. Solution processed and evaporated samples of different material composition and varying device architectures are studied. The standard OPV reference system, P3HT:PC61BM, is analyzed for various temperatures in terms of charge carrier lifetime and charge carrier density for a range of illumination intensities. The applicability of the Shockley Equation for organic solar cells is validated in case of field-independent charge photogeneration. In addition, a consistent model is presented, directly relating the ideality factor to the recombination of free with trapped charge carriers in an exponential density of states. An approach known as j=V reconstruction enables to identify the performance limiting loss mechanism of as-prepared and thermally treated P3HT:PC61BM solar cells. This procedure, involving TPV, CE and TDCF measurements, is extended to samples based on the rather new, low-band gap polymer PTB7 in combination with PC71BM. While in the devices processed from pure chlorobenzene solution considerable geminate and nongeminate losses are observed, the use of a solvent additive facilitates efficient polaron pair dissociation minimizing geminate recombination. Finally, in collaboration with the IMEC institute in Leuven, the two main organic solar cell device architectures, planar and bulk heterojunction—both based on CuPc and C60—are directly compared in terms of nongeminate recombination and charge carrier distribution. Two experimental techniques, TPV and CE, as well as a macroscopic device simulation are applied to reveal the origin of different Voc vs. light intensity dependence.
The present thesis studies the (Ga,Mn)As material in terms of optimization of very thin (4 nm) (Ga,Mn)As layers, epitaxially fabricated by the molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) technology. First of all, the ferromagnetic semiconductor (Ga,Mn)As with its structural, magnetic and electrical properties is introduced. The influences of point defects, interface and surface effects on bulk and thin (Ga,Mn)As layers are discussed by simplified self-consistent band alignment calculations. The experimental part is divided in three blocks: The first part studies the influence of epitaxial growth parameter conditions on electrical and magnetic properties of bulk (70 nm) (Ga,Mn)As layers. The second part introduces an alternative, parabolical Mn doping-profile instead of a 4 nm layer with a homogeneous Mn doping-profile. Improved properties of the parabolic layer have been observed as well as comparable magnetic and electrical properties to bulk (Ga,Mn)As layers, both with a Mn content of 4%. MBE growth parameters for the (Ga,Mn)As layers with a parabolically graded Mn profile and lowered nominal Mn content of 2.5% have been investigated. A narrow growth window has been found in which low-temperature (LT) layer properties are improved. The last part of this thesis presents an application of magnetic anisotropy control of a bulk (Ga,Mn)As layer.
Das Ziel dieser Promotion ist der Aufbau eines dreMR Setups für einen klinischen 1,5T Scanner, das die Relaxations-Dispersions-Bildgebung ermöglicht, und die anschließende Ergründung von möglichst vielen Anwendungsfeldern von dreMR. Zu der Aufgabe gehört die Bereitstellung der zugrunde liegenden Theorie, der Bau des experimentellen Setups (Offset-Spule und Stromversorgung) sowie die Programmierung der nötigen Software. Mit dem gebauten Setup konnten zwei große Anwendungsfelder — dreMR Messungen mit und ohne Kontrastmitteln — untersucht werden.
The present thesis deals with the fabrication, optimization of growth process and characterization of silicon based materials with molecular beam epitaxy. Two material systems are investigated in the course of this work: silicon/silicon suboxide multilayer structures and mono manganese silicide thin films. Mono manganese silicide (MnSi) is grown on Si(111) substrates with an hydrogen passivated surface, that is prepared by wet chemical processes. The growth start is performed by deposition of an amorphous Mn wetting layer that is subsequently annealed to form a MnSi seed layer on which the MnSi molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) is achieved. An amorphous or a crystalline Si cap layer is deposited onto the MnSi film to finalize the growth process and protect the sample from oxidation. With Raman spectroscopy it is shown that the crystalline cap layer is in fact single crystalline silicon. Results of x-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy confirm the growth of mono manganese silicide in contrast to other existing manganese silicide phases. In addition, in-plane and out-of-plane residual strain, and twinning of the MnSi thin film is detected with x-ray diffraction of symmetric and asymmetric reflections. Orientation between the Si substrate and the MnSi film is determined with the parallel lattice planes MnSi(210) and Si(511). Transport measurements show a T^2 dependence of the resistivity below 30K and metallic behavior above, a magneto resistance of 0.9% and an unusual memory like effect of the resistance for an in-plane magnetic field sweep measurement. Silicon/Silicon suboxide (SiOx) multilayer structures are grown on Si(100) by interrupting the Si growth and oxidizing the surface with molecular oxygen. During oxidation the RHEED pattern changes from the Si(2x1) reconstruction to an amorphous pattern. When silicon growth is resumed a spotty RHEED pattern emerges, indicating a rough, three dimensional surface. The rough surface can be smoothed out with Si growth at substrate temperatures between 600°C and 700°C. Measurements with transmission electron microscopy show that a silicon suboxide layer of about 1nm embedded in single crystalline silicon is formed with the procedure. Multilayer structures are achieved by repeating the oxidation procedure when the Si spacer layer has a smooth and flat surface. The oxygen content of the suboxide layers can be varied between 7.6% and 26.8%, as determined with secondary ion mass spectrometry and custom-built simulations models for the x-ray diffraction. Structural stability of the multilayer structures is investigated by x-ray diffraction before and after rapid thermal annealing. For temperatures up to 1000°C the multilayer structures show no modification of the SiOx layer in x-ray diffraction.
The present thesis is concerned with the impact of alkali metal-doping on the electronic structure of semiconducting organic thin films. The organic molecular systems which have been studied are the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons picene, pentacene, and coronene. Motivated by reports about exceptional behavior like superconductivity and electronic correlations of their alkali metal-doped compounds, high quality films fabricated from the above named molecules have been studied. The electronic structure of the pristine materials and their doped compounds has been investigated using photoelectron spectroscopy. Core level and valence band studies of undoped films yield excellent photoemission spectra agreeing with or even outperforming previously reported data from the literature. Alkali metal-doping manifests itself in a uniform manner in the electronic structure for all probed samples: Opposed to reports from the literature about metallicity and even superconductivity in alkali metal-doped picene, pentacene, and coronene, all films exhibit insulating nature with an energy gap of the order of one electron-volt. Remarkably, this is independent of the doping concentration and the type of dopant, i.e., potassium, cesium, or sodium. Based on the interplay between narrow bandwidths in organic semiconductors and sufficiently high on-molecule Coulomb repulsion, the non-metallicity is attributed to the strong influence of electronic correlations leading to the formation of a Mott insulator. In the case of picene, this is consolidated by calculations using a combination of density functional theory and dynamical mean-field theory. Beyond the extensive considerations regarding electronic correlations, further intriguing aspects have been observed. The deposition of thin picene films leads to the formation of a non-equilibrium situation between substrate and film surface. Here, the establishment of a homogeneous chemical potential is hampered due to the only weak van der Waals-interactions between the molecular layers in the films. Consequently, spectral weight is measurable above the reference chemical potential in photoemission. Furthermore, it has been found that the acceptance of additional electrons in pentacene is limited. While picene and coronene are able to host up to three extra electrons, in pentacene the limit is already reached for one electron. Finally, further extrinsic effects, coming along with alkali metal-doping, have been scrutinized. The oxidation of potassium atoms induced by the reaction with molecular oxygen in the residual gas of the ultra-high vacuum system turned out to significantly influence the electronic structure of alkali metal-doped picene and coronene. Moreover, also the applied X-ray and UV irradiation caused a certain impact on the photoemission spectra. Surprisingly, both effects did not play a role in the studies of potassium-doped pentacene.
In the presented thesis, the various excited states encountered in conjugated organic semiconductors are investigated with respect to their utilization in organic thin-film solar cells. Most of these states are spin-baring and can therefore be addressed by means of magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The primary singlet excitation (spin 0), as well as positive and negative polaronic charge carriers (spin 1/2) are discussed. Additionally, triplet excitons (spin 1) and charge transfer complexes are examined, focussing on their differing spin-spin interaction strength. For the investigation of these spin-baring states especially methods of electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) are best suited. Therefore according experimental methods were implemented in the course of this work to study conjugated polymers, fullerenes and their blends with continuous wave as well as time-resolved EPR and optically detected magnetic resonance.
In dieser Arbeit wurden Einzel-Quantenpunkt-Speichertransistoren im Experiment untersucht und wesentliche Ergebnisse durch Modellierung nachgebildet. Der Einzel-Quantenpunkt-Speichertransistor ist ein Bauelement, welches durch eine neuartige Verfahrensweise im Schichtaufbau und bei der Strukturierung realisiert wurde. Hierbei sind vor allem zwei Teilschritte hervorzuheben: Zum einen wurde das Speicherelement aus positionskontrolliert gewachsenen InAs Quantenpunkten gebildet. Zum anderen wurden durch eine spezielle Trockenätztechnik schmale Ätzstrukturen erzeugt, welche sehr präzise an der lateralen Position der Quantenpunkte ausgerichtet war. Durch diese Verfahrensweise war es somit möglich, Transistorstrukturen mit einzelnen Quantenpunkten an den charakteristischen Engstellen des Kanals zu realisieren.
In dieser Arbeit wurden für spezielle Anwendungen an klinischen MR-Geräten optimierte Phased-Array-Spulen entwickelt. Das Ziel war, durch die Verwendung neuer Spulen entweder neue Anwendungsgebiete für klinische MR-Geräte zu eröffnen oder bei bestehenden Applikationen die Diagnosemöglichkeiten durch eine Kombination von höherem SNR und kleineren g-Faktoren im Vergleich zu bestehenden Spulen zu verbessern. In Kapitel 3 wurde untersucht, ob es durch den Einsatz neu entwickelter, dedizierter Kleintierspulen sinnvoll möglich ist, Untersuchungen an Kleintieren an klinischen MR-Geräten mit einer Feldstärke von 1,5T durchzuführen. Der Einsatz dieser Spulen verspricht dem klinischen Anwender Studien an Kleintieren durchführen zu können, bei denen er den gleichen Kontrast wie bei einer humanen Anwendung erhält und gleichzeitig Kontrastmittel sowie Sequenzen, die klinisch erprobt sind, einzusetzen. Durch die gewählten geometrischen Abmessungen der Spulen ist es möglich, Zubehör von dedizierten Tier-MR-Geräten, wie z. B. Tierliegen oder EKG- bzw. Atemtriggereinheiten, zu verwenden. Durch Vorversuche an für Ratten dimensionierten Spulen wurden grundlegende Zusammenhänge zwischen verwendetem Entkopplungsmechanismus und SNR bzw. Beschleunigungsfähigkeit erarbeitet. Für Ratten wurde gezeigt, dass in akzeptablen Messzeiten von unter fünf Minuten MR-Messungen des Abdomens in sehr guter Bildqualität möglich sind. Ebenfalls gezeigt wurde die Möglichkeit durch den Einsatz von paralleler Bildgebung sowie Kontrastmitteln hochaufgelöste Angiographien durchzuführen. Es stellte sich heraus, dass bei 1,5T dedizierte Mäusespulen bei Raumtemperatur von den SNR-Eigenschaften am Limit des sinnvoll Machbaren sind. Trotzdem war es möglich, auch für Mäuse ein 4-Kanal-Phased-Array zu entwickeln und den Einsatz bei kontrastmittelunterstützten Applikationen zu demonstrieren. Insgesamt wurde gezeigt, dass durch den Einsatz von speziellen, angepassten Kleintierspulen auch Tieruntersuchungen an klinischen MR-Geräten mit niedriger Feldstärke durchführbar sind. Obwohl sich die Bestimmung der Herzfunktion an MR-Geräten im klinischen Alltag zum Goldstandard entwickelt hat, ist die MR-Messung durch lange Atemanhaltezyklen für einen Herzpatienten sehr mühsam. In Kapitel 4 wurde deswegen die Entwicklung einer 32-Kanal-Herzspule beschrieben, welche den Komfort für Patienten deutlich erhöhen kann. Schon mit einem ersten Prototypen für 3T war es möglich, erstmals Echtzeitbildgebung mit leicht reduzierter zeitlicher Auflösung durchzuführen und damit auf das Atemanhalten komplett zu verzichten. Dies ermöglicht den Zugang neuer Patientengruppen, z. B. mit Arrythmien, zu MR-Untersuchungen. Durch eine weitere Optimierung des Designs wurde das SNR sowie das Beschleunigungsvermögen signifikant gesteigert. Bei einem Beschleunigungsfaktor R = 5 in einer Richtung erhält man z. B. gemittelt über das gesamte Herz ein ca. 60 % gesteigertes SNR zu dem Prototypen. Die Kombination dieser Spule zusammen mit neuentwicklelten Methoden wie z. B. Compressed- Sensing stellt es in Aussicht, die Herzfunktion zukünftig in der klinischen Routine in Echtzeit quantifizieren zu können. In Kapitel 5 wurde die Entwicklung einer optimierten Brustspulen für 3T beschrieben. Bei Vorversuchen bei 1,5T wurden Vergleiche zwischen der Standardspule der Firma Siemens Healthcare und einem 16-Kanal-Prototypen durchgeführt. Trotz größerem Spulenvolumen zeigt die Neuentwicklung sowohl hinsichtlich SNR als auch paralleler Bildgebungseigenschaften eine signifikante Verbesserung gegenüber der Standardspule. Durch die Einhaltung aller Kriterien für Medizinprodukte kann diese Spule auch für den klinischen Einsatz verwendet werden. Mit den verbesserten Eigenschaften ist es beispielsweise möglich, bei gleicher Messdauer eine höhere Auflösung zu erreichen. Aufgrund des intrinsischen SNR-Vorteils der 3 T-Spule gegenüber der 1,5 T-Spule ist es dort sogar möglich, bei höheren Beschleunigungsfaktoren klinisch verwertbare Schnittbilder zu erzeugen. Zusammenfassend wurden für alle drei Applikationen NMR-Empfangsspulen entwickelt, die im Vergleich zu den bisher verfügbaren Spulen, hinsichtlich SNR und Beschleunigungsvermögen optimiert sind und dem Anwender neue Möglichkeiten bieten.
The contribution of the present thesis consists of three parts. They are centered around investigating certain semiconductor heterointerfaces relevant to spin injection, exploring novel, diluted magnetic single barrier tunneling structures, and further developing diluted magnetic II-VI resonant tunneling diodes.