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Investigation of processes that contribute to the maintenance of genomic stability is one crucial factor in the attempt to understand mechanisms that facilitate ageing. The DNA damage response (DDR) and DNA repair mechanisms are crucial to safeguard the integrity of DNA and to prevent accumulation of persistent DNA damage. Among them, base excision repair (BER) plays a decisive role. BER is the major repair pathway for small oxidative base modifications and apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) sites. We established a highly sensitive non-radioactive assay to measure BER incision activity in murine liver samples. Incision activity can be assessed towards the three DNA lesions 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxodG), 5-hydroxy-2'-deoxyuracil (5-OHdU), and an AP site analogue. We applied the established assay to murine livers of adult and old mice of both sexes. Furthermore, poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation (PARylation) was assessed, which is an important determinant in DDR and BER. Additionally, DNA damage levels were measured to examine the overall damage levels. No impact of ageing on the investigated endpoints in liver tissue were found. However, animal sex seems to be a significant impact factor, as evident by sex-dependent alterations in all endpoints investigated. Moreover, our results revealed interrelationships between the investigated endpoints indicative for the synergetic mode of action of the cellular DNA integrity maintaining machinery.
The comet assay is widely used in basic research, genotoxicity testing, and human biomonitoring. However, interpretation of the comet assay data might benefit from a better understanding of the future fate of a cell with DNA damage. DNA damage is in principle repairable, or if extensive, can lead to cell death. Here, we have correlated the maximally induced DNA damage with three test substances in TK6 cells with the survival of the cells. For this, we selected hydrogen peroxide (H\(_{2}\)O\(_{2}\)) as an oxidizing agent, methyl methanesulfonate (MMS) as an alkylating agent and etoposide as a topoisomerase II inhibitor. We measured cell viability, cell proliferation, apoptosis, and micronucleus frequency on the following day, in the same cell culture, which had been analyzed in the comet assay. After treatment, a concentration dependent increase in DNA damage and in the percentage of non-vital and apoptotic cells was found for each substance. Values greater than 20-30% DNA in tail caused the death of more than 50% of the cells, with etoposide causing slightly more cell death than H\(_{2}\)O\(_{2}\) or MMS. Despite that, cells seemed to repair of at least some DNA damage within few hours after substance removal. Overall, the reduction of DNA damage over time is due to both DNA repair and death of heavily damaged cells. We recommend that in experiments with induction of DNA damage of more than 20% DNA in tail, survival data for the cells are provided.
Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) exhibit an increased cancer risk compared to a healthy control population. To be able to estimate the cancer risk of the patients and to assess the impact of interventional therapies thereon, it is of particular interest to measure the patients’ burden of genomic damage. Chromosomal abnormalities, reduced DNA repair, and DNA lesions were found indeed in cells of patients with CKD. Biomarkers for DNA damage measurable in easily accessible cells like peripheral blood lymphocytes are chromosomal aberrations, structural DNA lesions, and oxidatively modified DNA bases. In this review the most common methods quantifying the three parameters mentioned above, the cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay, the comet assay, and the quantification of 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2′-deoxyguanosine, are evaluated concerning the feasibility of the analysis and regarding the marker’s potential to predict clinical outcomes.
The comet assay is a commonly used method to determine DNA damage and repair activity in many types of samples. In recent years, the use of the comet assay in human biomonitoring became highly attractive due to its various modified versions, which may be useful to determine individual susceptibility in blood samples. However, in human biomonitoring studies, working with large sample numbers that are acquired over an extended time period requires some additional considerations. One of the most important issues is the storage of samples and its effect on the outcome of the comet assay. Another important question is the suitability of different blood preparations. In this study, we analysed the effect of cryopreservation on DNA damage and repair activity in human blood samples. In addition, we investigated the suitability of different blood preparations. The alkaline and FPG as well as two different types of repair comet assay and an in vitro hydrogen peroxide challenge were applied. Our results confirmed that cryopreserved blood preparations are suitable for investigating DNA damage in the alkaline and FPG comet assay in whole blood, buffy coat and PBMCs. Ex vivo hydrogen peroxide challenge yielded its optimal effect in isolated PBMCs. The utilised repair comet assay with either UVC or hydrogen peroxide-induced lesions and an aphidicolin block worked well in fresh PBMCs. Cryopreserved PBMCs could not be used immediately after thawing. However, a 16-h recovery with or without mitotic stimulation enabled the application of the repair comet assay, albeit only in a surviving cell fraction.
Einfluss des Gewichtsverlusts auf den oxidativen Stress und den DNS-Schaden in adipösen Patient*innen nach bariatrischer Chirurgie
Adipositas ist eine Erkrankung, die durch ein erhöhtes Krebsrisiko neben zahlreichen anderen Komorbiditäten mit weitreichenden Folgen für die Gesundheit adipöser Patient*innen einhergeht. In der Pathogenese der adipositas-assoziierten Krebsarten sind dabei ein erhöhter oxidativer Stress sowie die damit einhergehende Schädigung der DNS maßgeblich beteiligt. Im Umkehrschluss wurde in der vorliegenden Arbeit der Einfluss eines durch bariatrische Chirurgie induzierten Gewichtsverlusts auf den oxidativen Stress und DNS-Schaden in adipösen Patient*innen anhand von Blutproben präoperativ sowie 6 und 12 Monate postoperativ untersucht. In einer Subpopulation der Patient*innen konnte eine tendenzielle Verringerung des DNS-Schadens anhand des Comet-Assays in peripheren Lymphozyten beobachtet werden. Im Hinblick auf den oxidativen Stress wurde im Plasma die Eisenreduktionsfähigkeit als Maß für antioxidative Kapazität sowie Malondialdehyd als Surrogatmarker für das Ausmaß an Lipidperoxidation bestimmt. Weiterhin wurde in Erythrozyten das Gesamtglutathion und oxidierte Glutathion bestimmt. Die oxidativen Stressparameter zeigten insgesamt nach einer initialen Zunahme im oxidativen Stress 6 Monate postoperativ eine rückläufige Tendenz im oxidativen Stress am Studienende. Somit geben die Beobachtungen dieser Arbeit Anlass zur Hoffnung, dass adipöse Patient*innen durch einen bariatrisch induzierten Gewichtsverlust von einer Verringerung des Krebsrisikos profitieren könnten.
Adipositas ist eine Erkrankung, die durch ein erhöhtes Krebsrisiko neben zahlreichen anderen Komorbiditäten mit weitreichenden Folgen für die Gesundheit adipöser Patient*innen einhergeht. In der Pathogenese der adipositas-assoziierten Krebsarten sind dabei ein erhöhter oxidativer Stress sowie die damit einhergehende Schädigung der DNS maßgeblich beteiligt. Im Umkehrschluss wurde in der vorliegenden Arbeit der Einfluss eines durch bariatrische Chirurgie induzierten Gewichtsverlusts auf den oxidativen Stress und DNS-Schaden in adipösen Patient*innen anhand von Blutproben präoperativ sowie 6 und 12 Monate postoperativ untersucht. In einer Subpopulation der Patient*innen konnte eine tendenzielle Verringerung des DNS-Schadens anhand des Comet-Assays in peripheren Lymphozyten beobachtet werden. Im Hinblick auf den oxidativen Stress wurde im Plasma die Eisenreduktionsfähigkeit als Maß für die antioxidative Kapazität sowie Malondialdehyd als Surrogatmarker für das Ausmaß an Lipidperoxidation bestimmt. Weiterhin wurde in Erythrozyten das Gesamtglutathion und das oxidierte Glutathion bestimmt. Die oxidativen Stressparameter zeigten insgesamt nach einer initialen Zunahme im oxidativen Stress 6 Monate postoperativ eine rückläufige Tendenz im oxidativen Stress am Studienende. Somit geben die Beobachtungen dieser Arbeit Anlass zur Hoffnung, dass adipöse Patient*innen durch einen bariatrisch induzierten Gewichtsverlust von einer Verringerung des Krebsrisikos profitieren könnten.
A list ofendogenaus DNA·damaging agents and processes is given. Endogenaus e/ectrophiles are found with the cosubstrates of physiological transfer reactions (S-adenosylrnethionine for methylation, A TP for phosphorylation, NAD\(^+\) for ADP-ribosylation, acetyl CoA for acetylation). Aldehyde groups (glyceraldehyde- 3-phosphate, formaldehyde, open forms of reducing sugars, degradation products of peroxidation) or alkylating degradation products derived from endogenaus nitrose compounds represent additional possibilities. Radical-forming reactions include leakage of the superoxide anion radical from terminal cytochromes and redox cycles, hydroxyl radical formation by the Fenton reaction from endogenaus hydrogen peroxide, and the formation of lipid peroxides. Genetic instability by spontaneaus deaminations and depurinations as well as replicative instability by tautomer errors andin the presence of mutagenic metal ions represent a third important dass of endogenaus genotoxic processes. The postulated endogenaus genotoxicity could form the mechanistic basis for what is called 'spontaneous' tumor incidence and explain the possibility of an increased tumor incidence after treatment of animals with non-genotoxic compounds exhibiting tumor-promoting activity only. Individual differences are expected to be seen also with endogenaus DNA damage. The presence of endogenaus DNA darnage implies that exogenaus DNAcarcinogen adducts give rise to an incremental darnage which is expected to be proportional to the carcinogen dose at lowest Ievels. An increased tumor risk due to exposure to exogenaus genotoxic carcinogens could therefore be assessed in terms of the background DNA damage~ for instance in multiples of the mean Ievel or of the interindividual variability in a population.
1.2-Dioxetanes, very reactive and high energy molecules. are involved as labile intermediates in dioxygenase- activated aerobic metabolism and in physiological processes. Various toxico1ogica1 tests reveal that dioxetanes are indeed genotoxic. In supercoiled DNA of bacteriophage PM2 they induce endonucleasesensitive sites, most of them are FPG protein-sensitive base modifications (8-hydroxyguanine, fonnamidopyrimidines). Pyrimidinedimersand sites ofbase loss (AP sites) which were probed by UV endonuclease and exonuclease 111 are minor lesions in this system. While the alky1-substituted dioxetanes do not show any significant mutagenic activity in different Salmonella typhimurium strains, heteroarene dioxetanes such as benzofuran and furocoumarin dioxetanes are strongly mutagenic in S. typhimurium strain TA I 00. DNA adducts formed with an intermediary alkyJating agent appear to be responsible for the mutagenic activity of benzofuran dioxetane. We assume that the benzofuran epoxides, generated in situ from benzofuran dioxetanes by deoxygenation are the ultimate mutagens of the latter. since benzofuran epoxides are highly mutagenic in the S. typhimurium strain TAIOO and they form DNA adducts. as detected by the 212Ppostlabelling technique. Our results imply that the type of D NA darnage promoted by dioxetanes is dependent on the structural feature of dioxetanes. Furthermore, the direct photochemical DNA darnage by energy transfer. i.e., pyrimidine dimers, plays a minor role in the genotoxicity of dioxetanes. Instead, photooxidation dominates in isolated DNA. while radical darnage and alkylation prevail in the cellular system.
Long-term fate of etoposide-induced micronuclei and micronucleated cells in Hela-H2B-GFP cells
(2020)
Micronuclei are small nuclear cellular structures containing whole chromosomes or chromosomal fragments. While there is a lot of information available about the origin and formation of micronuclei, less is known about the fate of micronuclei and micronucleated cells. Possible fates include extrusion, degradation, reincorporation and persistence. Live cell imaging was performed to quantitatively analyse the fates of micronuclei and micronucleated cells occurring in vitro. Imaging was conducted for up to 96 h in HeLa-H2B-GFP cells treated with 0.5, 1 and 2 µg/ml etoposide. While a minority of micronuclei was reincorporated into the main nucleus during mitosis, the majority of micronuclei persisted without any alterations. Degradation and extrusion were observed rarely or never. The presence of micronuclei affected the proliferation of the daughter cells and also had an influence on cell death rates. Mitotic errors were found to be clearly increased in micronucleus-containing cells. The results show that micronuclei and micronucleated cells can, although delayed in cell cycle, sustain for multiple divisions.
Mechanisms of apoptosis modulation and their contribution to genomic instability in tumor cells
(2004)
The concept of programmed cell death has been increasingly considered from various aspects since early 1970’s. Primarily, knowledge of apoptosis referred to morphological changes in which chromatin is condensed and increasingly fragmented, revealed as small structure in the nucleus. The membrane shrinks and the cell becomes dense as can be seen by flow cytometry. Interestingly, similar modes of cell deletion were observed in nematodes indicating that apoptosis is a highly conserved machinery. Three Caeonorhabditis elegans gene products are found to have high homology with mammalian apoptotic genes: CED-9 inhibits apoptosis and is related to bcl-2; CED-3 and CED-4 promote apoptosis and are related to caspase 9 and APAF-1. Apoptosis is not accidental death, but a highly controlled and medically important molecular process. More general terms such as ‘physiological’ or ‘regulated’ cell death cover different morphologies and sequences. Programmed suicide of cells that were subjected to toxic exogenous and endogenous stimuli plays a key role in understanding cancer development and its treatment. Apoptosis involves sequences of events that may overlap and play contradictory or antagonistic roles in cell death. Generally, the ability to trigger apoptotic processes in cancer cells would benefit an organism by keeping homeostasis intact. Programmed cell death is a regularly present mechanism, for instance, in lymphocyte recruitment in the thymus where immature lymphocytes may recognize host antigens. Therefore, such lymphocytes become apoptotic and are removed by macrophages. Removal prevents possible autoimmune diseases. Unlike apoptosis, necrosis is a passive process of cell death recognizable by membrane morphological changes and accompanied by leakage of intracellular material into intercellular space that may cause inflammation in the organism. Signals that may initiate apoptosis are generally classified into two groups: signals that launch extrinsic apoptotic pathways starting with aggregation of death receptors and intrinsic apoptotic pathways starting with disruption of intracellular homeostasis such as the release of mitochondrial factors or DNA degradation. Early in the process, apoptotic signals may lead to a broad range of signaling mechanisms such as DNA repair and assessment of DNA damage (check points). Thus, failure in any of these steps can cause a defective apoptotic response that plays a decisive role in both tumorigenesis and drug resistance in tumor treatment. More distinctly, the capability of cancer cells to go into apoptosis prevents further neoplastic changes. Generally, the purpose of this study is to investigate the balance between formation of genomic damage and induction of apoptosis under genotoxic stress. After genotoxic insult there are different possibilities for the fate of a cell (Figure 1). The genomic integrity is analyzed at cellular checkpoints, usually leading to a delay in cell cycle progression if DNA was damaged. Mutations in genes such as p53 and p21 change the cellular response to genotoxic stress and may alter the balance between apoptosis and genomic damage. However, p53 is usually mutated or not expressed in 70% of human tumors. Alterations in p53 states that reflect distinct apoptotic response upon induction of DNA damage were examined. In this study, three cell lines with distinct p53 states were used: TK6 harboring wild-type p53, WTK1 with mutated p53 and NH32 with knocked out p53. In the present work we applied different approaches to investigate the correlation between DNA damage and apoptotic responsiveness in cancer cell lines with different p53 states or in hormone responsive cell lines with over expressed bcl-2 gene. We were focused on effects caused by temporary down regulation of the p53 and Bcl-2 activity in human lymphoblastoid cell lines. In addition, we investigated the impact of estradiol-induced proliferation on apoptosis and DNA damage in stably transfected cells with bcl-2gene.