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Water transport through the water channels, aquaporins (AQPs), is involved in epithelial fluid secretion and absorption, cell migration, brain edema, adipocyte metabolism, and other physiological or pathological functions. Modulation of AQP function has therapeutic potential in edema, cancer, obesity, brain injury, glaucoma, etc. The function of AQPs is in response to the osmotic gradient that is formed by the concentration differences of ions or small molecules. In terms of brain edema, it is a pathophysiological condition, resulting from dysfunction of the plasma membrane that causes a disorder of intracellular ion homeostasis and thus increases intracellular fluid content. Optogenetics can be used to regulate ion transport easily by light with temporal and spatial precision. Therefore, if we control the cell ion influx, boosting the water transport through AQPs, this will help to investigate the pathological mechanisms in e.g. brain edema. To this end, I investigated the possibility for optogenetic manipulating water transport in Xenopus oocytes. The main ions in Xenopus oocyte cytoplasm are ~10 mM Na+, ~50 mM Cl- and ~100 mM K+, similar to the mammalian cell physiological condition. Three light-gated channels, ChR2-XXM 2.0 (light-gated cation channel), GtACR1 (light-gated anion channel) and SthK-bPAC (light-gated potassium channel), were used in my study to regulate ion transport by light and thus manipulate the osmotic gradient and water transport. To increase water flow, I also used coexpression of AQP1. When expressing ChR2-XXM 2.0 and GtACR1 together, mainly Na+ influx was triggered by ChR2-XXM2.0 under blue light illumination, which then made the membrane potential more positive and facilitated Cl- influx by GtACR1. Due to this inward movement of Na+ and Cl-, the osmotic gradient was formed to trigger water influx through AQP1. Large amounts of water uptake can speedily increase the oocyte volume until membrane rupture. Next, when co-expressing GtACR1 and SthK-bPAC, water efflux will be triggered with blue light because of the light-gated KCl efflux and then oocyte shrinking could be observed.
I also developed an optogenetic protein purification method based on a light-induced protein interactive system. Currently, the most common protein purification method is based on affinity chromatography, which requires different chromatography columns and harsh conditions, such as acidic pH 4.5 - 6 and/or adding imidazole or high salt concentration, to elute and collect the purified proteins. The change in conditions could influence the activity of target proteins. So, an easy and flexible protein purification method based on the photo-induced protein interactive system iLID was designed, which regulates protein binding with light in mild conditions and does not require a change of solution composition. For expression in E. coli, the blue light-sensitive part of iLID, the LOV2 domain, was fused with a membrane anchor and expressed in the plasma membrane, and the other binding partner, SspB, was fused with the protein of interest (POI), expressed in the cytosol. The plasma membrane fraction and the soluble cytosolic fraction of E. coli can be easily separated by centrifugation. The SspB-POI can be then captured to the membrane fraction by light stimulation and released to clean buffer in the dark after washing. This method does not require any specific column and functions in mild conditions, which are very flexible at scale and will facilitate extensive protein engineering and purification of proteins, sensitive to changed buffer conditions.
Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) is widely used for rapid photodepolarization of neurons, yet, as it requires high-intensity blue light for activation, it is not suited for long-term in vivo applications, e. g. for manipulations of behavior, or photoactivation of neurons during development. We used "slow" ChR2 variants with mutations in the C128 residue, that exhibit delayed off-kinetics and increased light sensitivity in Caenorhabditis elegans. Following a 1 s light pulse, we could photodepolarize neurons and muscles for minutes (and with repeated brief stimulation, up to days) with low-intensity light. Photoactivation of ChR2(C128S) in command interneurons elicited long-lasting alterations in locomotion. Finally, we could optically induce profound changes in animal development: Long-term photoactivation of ASJ neurons, which regulate larval growth, bypassed the constitutive entry into the "dauer" larval state in daf-11 mutants. These lack a guanylyl cyclase, which possibly renders ASJ neurons hyperpolarized. Furthermore, photostimulated ASJ neurons could acutely trigger dauer-exit. Thus, slow ChR2s can be employed to long-term photoactivate behavior and to trigger alternative animal development.
Guard cells control the aperture of plant stomata, which are crucial for global fluxes of CO\(_2\) and water. In turn, guard cell anion channels are seen as key players for stomatal closure, but is activation of these channels sufficient to limit plant water loss? To answer this open question, we used an optogenetic approach based on the light-gated anion channelrhodopsin 1 (GtACR1). In tobacco guard cells that express GtACR1, blue- and green-light pulses elicit Cl\(^-\) and NO\(_3\)\(^-\) currents of -1 to -2 nA. The anion currents depolarize the plasma membrane by 60 to 80 mV, which causes opening of voltage-gated K+ channels and the extrusion of K+. As a result, continuous stimulation with green light leads to loss of guard cell turgor and closure of stomata at conditions that provoke stomatal opening in wild type. GtACR1 optogenetics thus provides unequivocal evidence that opening of anion channels is sufficient to close stomata.
Young grapevines (Vitis vinifera) suffer and eventually can die from the crown gall disease caused by the plant pathogen Allorhizobium vitis (Rhizobiaceae). Virulent members of A. vitis harbor a tumor-inducing plasmid and induce formation of crown galls due to the oncogenes encoded on the transfer DNA. The expression of oncogenes in transformed host cells induces unregulated cell proliferation and metabolic and physiological changes. The crown gall produces opines uncommon to plants, which provide an important nutrient source for A. vitis harboring opine catabolism enzymes. Crown galls host a distinct bacterial community, and the mechanisms establishing a crown gall–specific bacterial community are currently unknown. Thus, we were interested in whether genes homologous to those of the tumor-inducing plasmid coexist in the genomes of the microbial species coexisting in crown galls. We isolated 8 bacterial strains from grapevine crown galls, sequenced their genomes, and tested their virulence and opine utilization ability in bioassays. In addition, the 8 genome sequences were compared with 34 published bacterial genomes, including closely related plant-associated bacteria not from crown galls. Homologous genes for virulence and opine anabolism were only present in the virulent Rhizobiaceae. In contrast, homologs of the opine catabolism genes were present in all strains including the nonvirulent members of the Rhizobiaceae and non-Rhizobiaceae. Gene neighborhood and sequence identity of the opine degradation cluster of virulent and nonvirulent strains together with the results of the opine utilization assay support the important role of opine utilization for cocolonization in crown galls, thereby shaping the crown gall community.
Plants attacked by herbivorous insects emit a blend of volatile compounds that serve as important host location cues for parasitoid wasps. Variability in the released blend may exist on the whole-plant and within-plant level and can affect the foraging efficiency of parasitoids. We comprehensively assessed the kinetics of herbivore-induced volatiles in soybean in the context of growth stage, plant organ, leaf age, and direction of signal transport. The observed patterns were used to test the predictions of the optimal defence hypothesis (OD). We found that plants in the vegetative stage emitted 10-fold more volatiles per biomass than reproductive plants and young leaves emitted >2.6 times more volatiles than old leaves. Systemic induction in single leaves was stronger and faster by one day in acropetal than in basipetal direction while no systemic induction was found in pods. Herbivore-damaged leaves had a 200-fold higher release rate than pods. To some extent these findings support the OD: i) indirect defence levels were increased in response to herbivory and ii) young leaves, which are more valuable, emitted more volatiles. However, the fact that reproductive structures emitted no constitutive or very few inducible volatiles is in seeming contrast to the OD predictions. We argue that in case of volatile emission the OD can only partially explain the patterns of defence allocation due to the peculiarity that volatiles act as signals not as toxins or repellents.
Blood glucose control is the primary strategy to prevent complications in diabetes. At the onset of kidney disease, therapies that inhibit components of the renin angiotensin system (RAS) are also indicated, but these approaches are not wholly effective. Here, we show that once daily administration of the novel glucose lowering agent, empagliflozin, an SGLT2 inhibitor which targets the kidney to block glucose reabsorption, has the potential to improve kidney disease in type 2 diabetes. In male db/db mice, a 10-week treatment with empagliflozin attenuated the diabetes-induced upregulation of profibrotic gene markers, fibronectin and transforming-growth-factor-beta. Other molecular (collagen IV and connective tissue growth factor) and histological (tubulointerstitial total collagen and glomerular collagen IV accumulation) benefits were seen upon dual therapy with metformin. Albuminuria, urinary markers of tubule damage (kidney injury molecule-1, KIM-1 and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin, NGAL), kidney growth, and glomerulosclerosis, however, were not improved with empagliflozin or metformin, and plasma and intra-renal renin activity was enhanced with empagliflozin. In this model, blood glucose lowering with empagliflozin attenuated some molecular and histological markers of fibrosis but, as per treatment with metformin, did not provide complete renoprotection. Further research to refine the treatment regimen in type 2 diabetes and nephropathy is warranted.
Maintaining the balance between CO2 uptake and transpiration is important for plants and depends on tightly controlled turgor changes caused by the activity of various anion and cation channels. These channels are part of signaling cascades triggered, for example, by phytohormones such as ABA (abscisic acid) and JA (jasmonate), both of which act during drought stress in guard cells. In addition, JA is known to be involved in the plant's response to pathogen attack or wounding.
GORK (guard cell outward rectifying K+ channel) is the only known outward rectifying K+ channel in guard cells and therefore responsible for K+ efflux during stomatal closure.
In the course of this work it could be demonstrated by stomatal aperture assays, that GORK is an essential part of JA-induced stomatal closure. This is true for both triggers, leaf wounding as well as direct MeJA (methyl jasmonate) application. Patch clamp experiments on guard cell protoplasts backed this finding by revealing GORK K+ outward currents as a target of JA signaling in guard cells. As cytosolic Ca2+ signals are known to be involved in both ABA as well as JA signaling, the interaction of GORK with Ca2+-dependent kinases was examined consequently. An antagonistic regulation of GORK by
CIPK5-CBL1/9 complexes and ABI2 was identified by DEVC (double electrode voltage clamp) and protein-protein interaction experiments and backed up by in vitro kinase assays. Patch-clamp recordings on guard cell protoplasts of cipk5-2 kinase loss-of-function mutant revealed the importance of CIPK5 for JA-triggered stomatal closure via activation of GORK. The interaction of different CDPKs (Ca2+-dependent protein kinases) with GORK was also investigated.
Besides Ca2+ signaling also ROS (reactive oxygen species) production is essential in ABA and MeJA signaling. In DEVC experiments a reversible effect of ROS on GORK channel activity could be demonstrated, which could be one piece in the explanation of those ROS effects in ABA and MeJA signaling.
This study explores novelty choice, a behavioral paradigm for the investigation of visual pattern recognition and learning of the fly Drosophila melanogaster in the flight simulator. Pattern recognition in novelty choice differs significantly from pattern recognition studied by heat conditioning, although both paradigms use the same test. Out of the four pattern parameters that the flies can learn in heat conditioning, novelty choice can be shown for height (horizontal bars differing in height), size and vertical compactness but not for oblique bars oriented at +/- 45°. Upright and inverted Ts [differing in their centers of gravity (CsOG) by 13°] that have been extensively used for heat conditioning experiments, do not elicit novelty choice. In contrast, horizontal bars differing in their CsOG by 13° do elicit novelty choice; so do the Ts after increasing their CsOG difference from 13° to 23°. This indicates that in the Ts the heights of the CsOG are not the only pattern parameters that matter for the novelty choice behavior. The novelty choice and heat conditioning paradigms are further differentiated using the gene rutabaga (rut) coding for a type 1 adenylyl cyclase. This protein had been shown to be involved in memory formation in the heat conditioning paradigm. Novelty choice is not affected by mutations in the rut gene. This is in line with the finding that dopamine, which in olfactory learning is known to regulate Rutabaga via the dopamine receptor Dumb in the mushroom bodies, is dispensable for novelty choice. It is concluded that in novelty choice the Rut cAMP pathway is not involved. Novelty choice requires short term working memory, as has been described in spatial orientation during locomotion. The protein S6KII that has been shown to be involved in visual orientation memory in walking flies is found here to be also required for novelty choice. As in heat conditioning the central complex plays a major role in novelty choice. The S6KII mutant phenotype for height can be rescued in some subsets of the ring neurons of the ellipsoid body. In addition the finding that the ellipsoid body mutants ebo678 and eboKS263 also show a mutant phenotype for height confirm the importance of ellipsoid body for height novelty choice. Interestingly some neurons in the F1 layer of the fan-shaped body are necessary for height novelty choice. Furthermore, different novelty choice phenotypes for different pattern parameters are found with and without mushroom bodies. Mushroom bodies are required in novelty choice for size but they are dispensable for height and vertical compactness. This special circuit requirement for the size parameter in novelty choice is found using various means of interference with mushroom body function during development or adulthood.
Marine sponges (Porifera) harbor diverse microbial communities within their mesohyl, among them representatives of the phylum Actinobacteria, commonly known as actinomycetes. Actinomycetes are prolific producers of pharmacologically important compounds and are responsible for producing the majority of antibiotics. The main aim of this Ph.D. study was to investigate the metabolic potential of the sponge-associated actinomycetes to produce novel anti-infective agents. The first aim was to cultivate actinomycetes derived from different marine sponges. 16S rDNA sequencing revealed that the strains belonged to diverse actinomycete genera such as Gordonia, Isoptericola, Micromonospora, Nocardiopsis, Saccharopolyspora and Streptomyces. Phylogenetic analyses and polyphasic characterization further revealed that two of these strains represent new species, namely Saccharopolyspora cebuensis strain SPE 10-1T (Pimentel-Elardo et al. 2008a) and Streptomyces axinellae strain Pol001T (Pimentel-Elardo et al. 2008b). Furthermore, secondary metabolite production of the actinomycete strains was investigated. The metabolites were isolated using a bioassay-guided purification scheme followed by structure elucidation using spectroscopic methods and subjected to an elaborate anti-infective screening panel. Several interesting compounds were isolated namely, the novel polyketides cebulactam A1 and A2 (Pimentel-Elardo et al. 2008c), a family of tetromycin compounds including novel derivatives, cyclodepsipeptide valinomycin, indolocarbazole staurosporine, diketopiperazine cycloisoleucylprolyl and butenolide. These compounds exhibited significant anti-parasitic as well as protease inhibitory activities. The third aim of this Ph.D. study was to identify biosynthetic gene clusters encoding for nonribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPS) and polyketide synthases (PKS) present in the actinomycete strains. Genomic library construction and sequencing revealed insights into the metabolic potential and biosynthetic pathways of selected strains. An interesting NRPS system detected in Streptomyces sp. strain Aer003 was found to be widely distributed in several sponge species, in an ascidian and in seawater and is postulated to encode for a large peptide molecule. Sequencing of the PKS gene cluster of Saccharopolyspora cebuensis strain SPE 10-1T allowed the prediction of the cebulactam biosynthetic pathway which utilizes 3-amino-5-hydroxybenzoic acid as the starter unit followed by successive condensation steps involving methylmalonyl extender units and auxiliary domains responsible for the polyketide assembly. In conclusion, this Ph.D. study has shown that diverse actinomycete genera are associated with marine sponges. The strains, two of them novel species, produced diverse chemical structures with interesting anti-infective properties. Lastly, the presence of biosynthetic gene clusters identified in this study substantiates the biosynthetic potential of actinomycetes to produce exploitable natural products and hopefully provides a sustainable supply of anti-infective compounds.
Normoxic and anoxic metabolism of Nicotiana tabacum transformants lacking root nitrate reductase
(2002)
The aim of this work was to find out whether and how nitrate reduction in roots would facilitate survival of hypoxic and anoxic (flooding)-phases. For that purpose, we compared the response of roots of hydroponically grown tobacco wildtype (Nicotiana tabacum cv. Gatersleben) and of a transformant (LNR-H) with no nitrate reductase (NR) in the roots but almost normal NR in leaves (based on a nia2-double mutant). As an additional control we used occasionally a 35S-transformant of the same nia2-double mutant, which on the same genetic background constitutively expressed NR in all organs. In some cases, we also compared the response of roots from WT plants, which had been grown on tungstate for some time in order to completely suppress NR activity. The following root parameters were examined: 1) Growth and morphology 2) Root respiration rates and leaf transpiration 3) Metabolite contents in roots (ATP, hexosemonophosphates, free sugars, starch, amino acids, total protein) 4) Inorganic cation and anion contents 5) Lactate and ethanol production 6) Extractable LDH-and ADH-activities 7) Cytosolic pH values (by 31P-NMR) 8) NO Cation and anion contents of roots from WT and LNR-H were only slightly different, confirming that these plants would be better suited for our purposes than the widely used comparison of nitrate-versus ammonium-grown plants, which usually show up with dramatic differences in their ion contents. Normoxia: LNR-H-plants had shorter and thicker roots than WT with a lower roots surface area per leaf FW. This was probably the major cause for the significantly lower specific leaf transpiration of LNR-H. WT-roots had lower respiration rates, lower ATP-and HMP-contents, slightly lower sugar- and starch contents and somewhat lower amino acid contents than LNR-H roots. However, total protein/FW was almost identical. Obviously the LNR-H transformants did not suffer from N-defciency, and their energy status appeared even better than that of WT-roots. Data from the 35S-transformant were similar to those of WT. This indicates that the observed differences between WT and LNR-H were not due to unknown factors of the genetic nia2-background, but that they could be really traced back to the presence resp. absence of nitrate reduction. Anoxia: Under short-term anoxia (2h) LNR-H plants, but not WT-plants exhibited clear symptoms of wilting, although leaf transpiration was lower with LNR-H. Reasons are not known yet. LNR-H roots produced much more ethanol (which was excreted) and lactate compared to WT, but extractable ADH and LDH activities, were not induced by anoxia. However, the LDH activity background was twice as high as that of the WT troughout the time period studied. Tungstate-treated WT-roots also gave higher fermentation rates than normal WT roots. Sugar- and HMP-contents remained higher in LNR-H roots than in WT. NR in WT roots was activated under anoxia and roots accumulated nitrite, which was also released to the medium. 31P-NMR spectroscopy showed that LNR-H- roots, in spite of their better energy status, acidified their cytosol more than WT roots. Conclusions: Obviously nitrate reduction affects - by as yet unknown mechanisms - root growth and morphology. The much lower anoxic fermentation rates of WT-roots compared to LNR-H roots could not be traced back to an alternative NADH consumption by nitrate reduction, since NR activity was too low for that. An overall estimation of H+-production by glycolysis, fermentation and nitrate reduction (without nitrite reduction, which was absent under anoxia) indicated that the stronger cytosolic acidification of anoxic LNR-H roots was based on their higher fermentation rates. Thus, nitrate reduction under anoxia appears advantageous because of lower fermentation rates and concomitantly lower cytosolic acidification. However, it remained unclear why fermentation rates were so different. Perspective: Preliminary experiments had indicated that WT-roots produced more nitric oxide (NO) under anoxia than LNR-H-roots. Accordingly, we suggest that nitrate reduction, beyond a merely increased NADH-consumption, would lead to advantageous changes in metabolism, eventually via NO-production, which is increasingly recognized as an important signaling compound regulating many plant functions.
Plant–pathogen interactions have been widely studied, but mostly from the site of the plant secondary defense. Less is known about the effects of pathogen infection on plant primary metabolism. The possibility to transform a fluorescing protein into prokaryotes is a promising phenotyping tool to follow a bacterial infection in plants in a noninvasive manner. In the present study, virulent and avirulent Pseudomonas syringae strains were transformed with green fluorescent protein (GFP) to follow the spread of bacteria in vivo by imaging Pulse-Amplitude-Modulation (PAM) fluorescence and conventional binocular microscopy. The combination of various wavelengths and filters allowed simultaneous detection of GFP-transformed bacteria, PAM chlorophyll fluorescence, and phenolic fluorescence from pathogen-infected plant leaves. The results show that fluorescence imaging allows spatiotemporal monitoring of pathogen spread as well as phenolic and chlorophyll fluorescence in situ, thus providing a novel means to study complex plant–pathogen interactions and relate the responses of primary and secondary metabolism to pathogen spread and multiplication. The study establishes a deeper understanding of imaging data and their implementation into disease screening.
Nitric oxide production by tobacco plants and cell cultures under normal conditions and under stress
(2004)
Nitric oxide (NO) is a gaseous free radical involved in the regulation of diverse biochemical and physiological processes in animals. During the last decade, evidence has accumulated that NO might also play an important role as a second messenger in plants. Of special interest were observations that NO was involved in a signal chain leading to the hypersensitive response (HR) in incompatible plant-pathogen interactions. In contrast to animals, plants have probably several enzymes that may produce NO. Potential candidates are: Cytosolic nitrate reductase (NR; EC 1.6.6.1), plasma-membrane (PM)-nitrite: NO reductase (Ni:NOR), nitric oxide synthase (NOS; EC 1.14.13.39) and Xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH; EC 1.1.1.204). The major goal of this work was to quantify NO production by plants, and to identify the enzymes responsible for NO production. As a major method, NO production by tobacco leaves or cell suspensions was followed under normal, non-stress conditions, and under biotic stress, through on-line measurement of NO emission into the gas phase (chemiluminescence). Plants used were tobacco wild-type (N. tabacum cv Xanthi or cv Gatersleben), NR-free mutants grown on ammonium in order to prevent NR induction, plants grown on tungstate to inhibit synthesis of functional MoCoenzymes, and a NO-overproducing nitrite reductase (NiR)-deficient transformant. Induction of HR in tobacco leaves and in cell suspensions was achieved using the fungal peptide elicitor cryptogein. Non-elicited leaves from nitrate-grown plants showed a typical NO-emission pattern where NO-emission was low in dark, higher in the light and very high under dark-anaerobic conditions. Even at maximum rates, NO production in vivo was only a few percent of total NR activity (NRA). Consistent with that, with a solution of purified NR as a simple, “low quenching” system, NO-emission was also about 1 % of NRA. Thus, NO scavenging by leaves and stirred cell suspensions appeared small and NO-emission into purified air should give a reliable estimate of NO production. NO-emission was always high in a NiR-deficient transformant which accumulated nitrite, and NO-emission was completely absent in plants or cell suspensions which did not contain NR. Thus, in healthy plants or cell suspensions, NO-emission was exclusively due to the reduction of nitrite to NO, mainly by cytosolic NR. In addition to nitrite, cytosolic NADH appears as an important factor limiting NO production. Unexpectedly, plants (in absence of NR) were able to reduce nitrite to NO under anaerobic conditions through an unknown enzyme system that was not a MoCo-enzyme and was cyanide-sensitive. When infiltrated into leaves at nanomolar concentrations, the fungal elicitor cryptogein provoked cell death in tobacco leaves and cell suspensions. The HR could be prevented by the NO-scavengers PTIO or c-PTIO, suggesting that NO production was indeed required for the HR. However, the product of the reaction of c-PTIO with NO, c-PTI, also prevented cell death without quenching NO emission. Thus, prevention of cell death by c- PTIO is no proof for an involvement of NO. No differences were found in the HR induction between NR-free plants and/or cell suspensions and WT plants. Thus, NR appears not necessary for the HR. Further, and in contrast to literature suggestions, a continuously high NO-overproduction by a NiR-free mutant did not interfere with the development of the HR. Most surprisingly, no additional NO-emission from tobacco leaves was induced by cryptogein at any phase of the HR. In contrast, some NO-emission, paralleled by nitrite accumulation, was detected 3-6 h after cryptogein addition with nitrate grown cell suspensions, but not with NR free, ammonium- grown cells. Thus, induction of NO-emission by cryptogein appeared somehow correlated with NR and nitrite, at least in cell suspensions. But since cryptogein induced the HR even in NR-free cell suspensions, this nitrite-related NO- emission was not required for cell death. NOS inhibitors neither prevented cell death nor did they affect nitrite-dependent NO-emission. Thus, in total these data question the often proposed role of NO as a signal in the HR, and of NOS as source for NO.
During the last few years an increasing number of physiological processes in plants have been shown to be regulated by NO. NO plays important roles in growth and development, plant disease resistance, abiotic stress, and in above and underground plant organs. In recent years several enzymatic pathways and few non-enzymatic pathways were proposed for nitric oxide production in plants. The major goal of this work was to quantify NO production by plants and especially by roots, and to identify the enzymes responsible for NO production. As a major method, NO production by roots was followed through on-line measurement of NO emission into the gas phase by chemiluminescence (= direct chemiluminescence), and also by indirect chemiluminescence where trace amounts of oxidized products like NO2- and NO3- can be easily measured. Plants used were tobacco wild-type (N. tabacum cv Xanthi or cv Gatersleben), NR-free mutants grown on ammonium in order to prevent NR induction, plants grown on tungstate to inhibit synthesis of functional MoCo-enzymes, and a NO-overproducing nitrite reductase (NiR)-deficient transformant as well as barley, rice and pea. Induction of a hypersensitive response (HR) in tobacco leaves was achieved by using avirulent Pseudomonas syringae pv phaseolicola. At oxygen concentrations of <1%, even completely nitrate reductase (NR)-free root tissues reduced added nitrite to NO, indicating that in roots, NR was not the only source for nitrite-dependent NO formation. By contrast, NR-free leaf slices were not able to reduce nitrite to NO. Root NO formation was blocked by inhibitors of mitochondrial electron transport (Myxothiazol and SHAM), whereas NO formation by NR containing leaf slices was insensitive to the inhibitors. Consistent with that, mitochondria purified from roots, but not those from leaves, reduced nitrite to NO at the expense of NADH. The inhibitor studies suggest that, in root mitochondria, both terminal oxidases participate in NO formation, and they also suggest that even in NR-containing roots, a large part of the reduction of nitrite to NO was catalysed by mitochondria, and less by NR. The differential capacity of root and leaf mitochondria to reduce nitrite to NO appears to be common among higher plants, since it was observed with Arabidopsis, barley, pea, and tobacco. Nitrite and NADH consumption by mitochondria were also measured. Anaerobic, nitrite-dependent NO emission was exclusively associated with the membrane fraction, without participation of matrix components. It was also examined whether root mitochondria and mitochondrial membranes produce nitric oxide (NO) exclusively by reduction of nitrite or also via a nitric oxide synthase (NOS),- and to what extent direct NO measurements could be falsified by NO oxidation. In addition to chemiluminescence, Diaminofluoresceins (DAF) were used as an NO indicators for comparison. In air, mitochondria apparently produced no nitrite-dependent NO, and no NOS activity was detected by direct or indirect chemiluminescence. In contrast, with DAF-2 and DAR-4M an L-arginine-dependent fluorescence increase took place. However, the response of this apparent NOS activity to inhibitors, substrates and cofactors was untypical when compared with commercial iNOS and is considered an artefact. With iNOS, about 2/3 of the NO were oxidized to (nitrite + nitrate). Mitochondria also appear to consume NO without increasing oxidation to (nitrite+ nitrate). We therefore assume formation of NO to a volatile intermediate (eventually N2O3). It was recently shown that the hypersensitive response (HR) of tobacco triggered by the fungal elicitor cryptogein occurred independent of the presence or absence of nitrate reductase (NR). One conclusion was that NR-dependent NO formation played no role in the HR. Here we present evidence that the described scenario may be specific for cryptogein. Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola was infiltrated into tobacco leaves from WT plant and from the NiR-deficient NO-overproducing clone 271, grown either on nitrate or ammonium. Lesion development as well as bacterial growth and sugar concentrations in leaves and in the leaf apoplast was monitored. Lesion development was positively and bacterial growth was negatively correlated with nitrate nutrition and eventually with NO formation. Bacterial growth was positively correlated with ammonium nutrition and apoplastic sugar concentrations. Total (free and conjugated) SA content were always drastically increased by bacterial infection, but there was no clear correlation with NO production. In the presence of cryptogein, Pseudomonas growth was drastically reduced. This shows that the assumed interdependence of bacterial growth, NO production and the HR is complex and not unifactorial.
Four new tetromycin derivatives, tetromycins 1-4 and a previously known one, tetromycin B (5) were isolated from Streptomyces axinellae Pol001(T) cultivated from the Mediterranean sponge Axinella polypoides. Structures were assigned using extensive 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy as well as HRESIMS analysis. The compounds were tested for antiparasitic activities against Leishmania major and Trypanosoma brucei, and for protease inhibition against several cysteine proteases such as falcipain, rhodesain, cathepsin L, cathepsin B, and viral proteases SARS-CoV M(pro), and PL(pro). The compounds showed antiparasitic activities against T. brucei and time-dependent inhibition of cathepsin L-like proteases with K(i) values in the low micromolar range.
Four new tetromycin derivatives, tetromycins 1–4 and a previously known one, tetromycin B (5) were isolated from Streptomyces axinellae Pol001T cultivated from the Mediterranean sponge Axinella polypoides. Structures were assigned using extensive 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy as well as HRESIMS analysis. The compounds were tested for antiparasitic activities against Leishmania major and Trypanosoma brucei, and for protease inhibition against several cysteine proteases such as falcipain, rhodesain, cathepsin L, cathepsin B, and viral proteases SARS-CoV Mpro, and PLpro. The compounds showed antiparasitic activities against T. brucei and time-dependent inhibition of cathepsin L-like proteases with Ki values in the low micromolar range.
Salinity stress tolerance in durum wheat is strongly associated with a plant's ability to control Na\(^+\) delivery to the shoot. Two loci, termed Nax1 and Nax2, were recently identified as being critical for this process and the sodium transporters HKT1;4 and HKT1; 5 were identified as the respective candidate genes. These transporters retrieve Na\(^+\) from the xylem, thus limiting the rates of Na\(^+\) transport from the root to the shoot. In this work, we show that the Nax loci also affect activity and expression levels of the SOS1-like Na\(^+\)/H\(^+\) exchanger in both root cortical and stelar tissues. Net Na\(^+\) efflux measured in isolated steles from salt-treated plants, using the non-invasive ion flux measuring MIFE technique, decreased in the sequence: Tamaroi (parental line)>Nax1=Nax2>Nax1:Nax2 lines. This efflux was sensitive to amiloride (a known inhibitor of the Na\(^+\)/H\(^+\) exchanger) and was mirrored by net H\(^+\) flux changes. TdSOS1 relative transcript levels were 6-10-fold lower in Nax lines compared with Tamaroi. Thus, it appears that Nax loci confer two highly complementary mechanisms, both of which contribute towards reducing the xylem Na\(^+\) content. One enhances the retrieval of Na\(^+\) back into the root stele via HKT1;4 or HKT1;5, whilst the other reduces the rate of Na\(^+\) loading into the xylem via SOS1. It is suggested that such duality plays an important adaptive role with greater versatility for responding to a changing environment and controlling Na\(^+\) delivery to the shoot.
Plant gas exchange is regulated by guard cells that form stomatal pores. Stomatal adjustments are crucial for plant survival; they regulate uptake of CO\(_{2}\) for photosynthesis, loss of water, and entrance of air pollutants such as ozone. We mapped ozone hypersensitivity, more open stomata, and stomatal CO\(_{2}\)-insensitivity phenotypes of the Arabidopsis thaliana accession Cvi-0 to a single amino acid substitution in MITOGEN-ACTIVATED PROTEIN (MAP) KINASE 12 (MPK12). In parallel, we showed that stomatal CO\(_{2}\)-insensitivity phenotypes of a mutant cis (CO\(_{2}\)-insensitive) were caused by a deletion of MPK12. Lack of MPK12 impaired bicarbonate-induced activation of S-type anion channels. We demonstrated that MPK12 interacted with the protein kinase HIGH LEAF TEMPERATURE 1 (HT1)—a central node in guard cell CO\(_{2}\) signaling—and that MPK12 functions as an inhibitor of HT1. These data provide a new function for plant MPKs as protein kinase inhibitors and suggest a mechanism through which guard cell CO\(_{2}\) signaling controls plant water management.
Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and Root Nodule Symbiosis are symbiotic interactions with a high benefit for plant growth and crop production. Thus, it is of great interest to understand the developmental process of these symbioses in detail. We analysed very early symbiotic responses of Medicago truncatula root hair cells, by stimulation with lipochitinoligosaccharides specific for the induction of nodules (Nod-LCOs), or the interaction with mycorrhiza (Myc-LCOs). Intracellular micro electrodes were used, in combination with Ca\(^{2+}\) sensitive reporter dyes, to study the relations between cytosolic Ca\(^{2+}\) signals and membrane potential changes. We found that sulfated Myc- as well as Nod-LCOs initiate a membrane depolarization, which depends on the chemical composition of these signaling molecules, as well as the genotype of the plants that were studied. A successive application of sulfated Myc-LCOs and Nod-LCOs resulted only in a single transient depolarization, indicating that Myc-LCOs can repress plasma membrane responses to Nod-LCOs. In contrast to current models, the Nod-LCO-induced depolarization precedes changes in the cytosolic Ca\(^{2+}\) level of root hair cells. The Nod-LCO induced membrane depolarization thus is most likely independent of cytosolic Ca\(^{2+}\) signals and nuclear Ca\(^{2+}\) spiking.
The cystine-knot containing protein Sclerostin is an important negative regulator of bone growth and therefore represents a promising therapeutic target. It exerts its biological task by inhibiting the Wnt (wingless and int1) signaling pathway, which participates in bone formation by promoting the differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells to osteoblasts. The core structure of Sclerostin consists of three loops with the first and third loop (Finger 1 and Finger 2) forming a structured \(\beta\)-sheet and the second loop being unstructured and highly flexible. Biochemical data showed that the flexible loop is important for binding of Sclerostin to Wnt co-receptors of the low-density lipoprotein related-protein family (LRP), by interacting with the Wnt co-receptors LRP5 or -6 it inhibits Wnt signaling. To further examine the structural requirements for Wnt inhibition, we performed an extensive mutational study within all three loops of the Sclerostin core domain involving single and multiple mutations as well as truncation of important regions. By this approach we could confirm the importance of the second loop and especially of amino acids Asn92 and Ile94 for binding to LRP6. Based on a Sclerostin variant found in a Turkish family suffering from Sclerosteosis we generated a Sclerostin mutant with cysteines 84 and 142 exchanged thereby removing the third disulfide bond of the cystine-knot. This mutant binds to LRP6 with reduced binding affinity and also exhibits a strongly reduced inhibitory activity against Wnt1 thereby showing that also elements outside the flexible loop are important for inhibition of Wnt by Sclerostin. Additionally, we examined the effect of the mutations on the inhibition of two different Wnt proteins, Wnt3a and Wnt1. We could detect clear differences in the inhibition of these proteins, suggesting that the mechanism by which Sclerostin antagonizes Wnt1 and Wnt3a is fundamentally different.
(1) Background: After the discovery and application of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii channelrhodopsins, the optogenetic toolbox has been greatly expanded with engineered and newly discovered natural channelrhodopsins. However, channelrhodopsins of higher Ca\(^{2+}\) conductance or more specific ion permeability are in demand. (2) Methods: In this study, we mutated the conserved aspartate of the transmembrane helix 4 (TM4) within Chronos and PsChR and compared them with published ChR2 aspartate mutants. (3) Results: We found that the ChR2 D156H mutant (XXM) showed enhanced Na\(^+\) and Ca\(^{2+}\) conductance, which was not noticed before, while the D156C mutation (XXL) influenced the Na\(^+\) and Ca\(^{2+}\) conductance only slightly. The aspartate to histidine and cysteine mutations of Chronos and PsChR also influenced their photocurrent, ion permeability, kinetics, and light sensitivity. Most interestingly, PsChR D139H showed a much-improved photocurrent, compared to wild type, and even higher Na+ selectivity to H\(^+\) than XXM. PsChR D139H also showed a strongly enhanced Ca\(^{2+}\) conductance, more than two-fold that of the CatCh. (4) Conclusions: We found that mutating the aspartate of the TM4 influences the ion selectivity of channelrhodopsins. With the large photocurrent and enhanced Na\(^+\) selectivity and Ca\(^{2+}\) conductance, XXM and PsChR D139H are promising powerful optogenetic tools, especially for Ca\(^{2+}\) manipulation.
Resolving the physiological mechanisms by which rhizobacteria enhance plant growth is difficult, since many such bacteria contain multiple plant growth-promoting properties. To understand further how the 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase (ACCd)-containing rhizobacterium Variovorax paradoxus 5C-2 affects plant growth, the flows and partitioning of mineral nutrients and abscisic acid (ABA) and ABA metabolism were studied in pea (Pisum sativum) plants following rhizosphere bacterial inoculation. Although root architecture was not affected, inoculation increased root and shoot biomass, and stomatal conductance, by 20, 15, and 24%, respectively, and increased N, P, K, Ca, and Mg uptake by 16, 81, 50, 46, and 58%, respectively. P deposition in inoculated plant roots was 4.9 times higher than that in uninoculated controls. Rhizobacterial inoculation increased root to shoot xylem flows and shoot to root phloem flows of K by 1.8- and 2.1-fold, respectively. In control plants, major sinks for K deposition were the roots and upper shoot (43% and 49% of total uptake, respectively), while rhizobacterial inoculation increased K distribution to the lower shoot at the expense of other compartments (xylem, phloem, and upper shoot). Despite being unable to metabolize ABA in vitro, V. paradoxus 5C-2 decreased root ABA concentrations and accumulation by 40–60%. Although inoculation decreased xylem ABA flows, phloem ABA flows increased. Whether bacterial ACCd attenuates root to shoot ABA signalling requires further investigation, since ABA is critical to maintain growth of droughted plants, and ACCd-containing organisms have been advocated as a means of minimizing growth inhibition of plants in drying soil.
Pivotal barrier properties of the hydrophobic plant cuticle covering aerial plant surfaces depend on its physicochemical composition. Among plant species and organs, compounds of this boundary layer between the plant interior and the environment vary considerably but cuticle-related studies comparing different organs from the same plant species are still scarce. Thus, this study focused on the cuticle profiles of Physalis peruviana, Physalis ixocarpa, Alkekengi officinarum, and Nicandra physalodes species. Inflated fruiting calyces enveloping fruits make Physalis, Alkekengi, and Nicandra highly recognizable genera among the Solanoideae subfamily. Although the inflation of fruiting calyces is well discussed in the literature still little is known about their post-floral functionalities. Cuticular composition, surface structure, and barrier function were examined and compared in fully expanded amphistomatous leaves, ripe astomatous fruits, and fully inflated hypostomatous fruiting calyces. Species- and organ-specific abundances of non-glandular and glandular trichomes revealed high structural diversity, covering not only abaxial and adaxial leaf surfaces but also fruiting calyx surfaces, whereas fruits were glabrous. Cuticular waxes, which limit non-stomatal transpiration, ranged from <1 μg cm\(^{−2}\) on P. peruviana fruiting calyces and N. physalodes fruits to 22 μg cm\(^{−2}\) on P. peruviana fruits. Very-long-chain aliphatic compounds, notably n-alkanes, iso-, and anteiso-branched alkanes, alkanols, alkanoic acids, and alkyl esters, dominated the cuticular wax coverages (≥86%). Diversity of cuticular wax patterns rose from leaves to fruiting calyces and peaked in fruits. The polymeric cutin matrix providing the structural framework for cuticular waxes was determined to range from 81 μg cm\(^{−2}\) for N. physalodes to 571 μg cm\(^{−2}\) for A. officinarum fruits. Cuticular transpiration barriers were highly efficient, with water permeabilities being ≤5 × 10\(^{−5}\) m s\(^{−1}\). Only the cuticular water permeability of N. physalodes fruits was 10 × 10\(^{−5}\) m s\(^{−1}\) leading to their early desiccation and fruits that easily split, whereas P. peruviana, P. ixocarpa, and A. officinarum bore fleshy fruits for extended periods after maturation. Regarding the functional significance, fruiting calyces establish a physicochemical shield that reduces water loss and enables fruit maturation within a protective microclimate, and promotes different seed dispersal strategies among plant species investigated.
In the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, more than 2000 genes are estimated to encode transcription factors (TFs), which clearly emphasizes the importance of transcriptional control. Although genomic approaches have generated large TF open reading frame (ORF) collections, only a limited number of these genes is functionally characterized, yet. This review evaluates strategies and methods to identify TF functions. In particular, we focus on two recently developed TF screening platforms, which make use of publically available GATEWAY®-compatible ORF collections. (1) The Arabidopsis thaliana TF ORF over-Expression (AtTORF-Ex) library provides pooled collections of transgenic lines over-expressing HA-tagged TF genes, which are suited for screening approaches to define TF functions in stress defense and development. (2) A high-throughput microtiter plate based protoplast trans activation (PTA) system has been established to screen for TFs which are regulating a given promoter:Luciferase construct in planta.
Plants are able to sense mechanical forces in order to defend themselves against predators,
for instance by synthesizing repellent compounds. Very few plants evolved extremely sensitive
tactile abilities that allow them to perceive, interpret and respond by rapid movement in the
milliseconds range. One such rarity is the charismatic Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) - a
carnivorous plant which relies on its spectacular active trapping strategy to catch its prey. The
snapping traps are equipped with touch-specialised trigger hairs, that upon bending elicit an
action potential (AP). This electrical signal originates within the trigger hairs’ mechanosensory
cells and further propagates throughout the whole trap, alerting the plant of potential prey.
Two APs triggered within thirty seconds will set off the trap and more than five APs will
initiate the green stomach formation for prey decomposition and nutrient uptake. Neither
the molecular components of the plant’s AP nor the Venus flytrap’s fast closure mechanism
have been fully elucidated yet. Therefore, the general objective of this study is to expound
on the molecular basis of touch perception: from AP initiation to trap closure and finally to
stomach formation.
The typical electrical signal in plants lasts for minutes and its shape is determined by the
intensity of the mechanical force applied. In contrast, the Venus flytrap’s one-second AP is of
all-or-nothing type, similar in shape to the animal AP. In order to gain more insight into the
molecular components that give rise to the Venus flytrap’s emblematic AP, the transcriptomic
landscape of its unique mechanotransducer - the trigger hair – was compared to the rest
of the non-specialised tissues and organs. Additionally, the transcriptome of the electrically
excitable fully-developed adult trap was compared to non-excitable juvenile traps that are
unable to produce sharp APs. Together, the two strategies helped with the identification of
electrogenic channels and pumps for each step of the AP as follows: (1) the most specific to
the trigger hair was the mechanosensitive channel DmMSL10, making up the best candidate for
the initial AP depolarization phase, (2) the K+ outward rectifier DmSKOR could be responsible
for repolarisation, (3) further, the proton pump DmAHA4, might kick in during repolarisation
and go on with hyperpolarisation and (4) the hyperpolarization- and acid-activated K+ inward
rectifier KDM1 might contribute to the re-establishment of electrochemical gradient and
the resting potential. Responsible for the AP-associated Ca2+ wave and electrical signal
propagation, the glutamate-like receptor DmGLR3.6 was also enriched in the trigger hairs.
Together, these findings suggest that the reuse of genes involved in electrical signalling in
ordinary plants can give rise to the Venus flytrap’s trademark AP.
The Venus flytrap has been cultivated ever since its discovery, generating more than one
hundred cultivars over the years. Among them, indistinguishable from a normal Venus flytrap
at first sight, the ’ERROR’ cultivar exhibits a peculiar behaviour: it is unable to snap its traps
upon two APs. Nevertheless, it is still able to elicit normal APs. To get a better understanding
of the key molecular mechanisms and pathways that are essential for a successful trap closure,
the ’ERROR’ mutant was compared to the functional wild type.
Timelapse photography led to the observation that the ’ERROR’ mutants were able to leisurely
half close their traps when repeated mechanostimulation was applied (10 minutes after 20
APs, 0.03 Hz). As a result of touch or wounding in non-carnivorous plants, jasmonic acid
(JA) is synthesized, alerting the plants of potential predators. Curiously, the JA levels were reduced upon mechanostimulation and completely impaired upon wounding in the ’ERROR’
mutant. In search of genes accountable for the ’ERROR’ mutant’s defects, the transcriptomes
of the two phenotypes were compared before and after mechanostimulation (1h after 10
APs, 0.01 Hz). The overall dampened response of the mutant compared to the wild type,
was reflected at transcriptomic level as well. Only about 50% of wild type’s upregulated
genes after touch stimulation were differentially expressed in ’ERROR’ and they manifested
only half of the wild type’s expression amplitude. Among unresponsive functional categories
of genes in ’ERROR’ phenotype, there were: cell wall integrity surveilling system, auxin
biosynthesis and stress-related transcription factors from the ethylene-responsive AP2/ERF and
C2H2-ZF families. Deregulated Ca2+-decoding as well as redox-related elements together with
JA-pathway components might also contribute to the malfunctioning of the ’ERROR’ mutant. As
the mutant does not undergo full stomach formation after mechanical treatment, these missing
processes represent key milestones that might mediate growth-defence trade-offs under JA
signalling. This confirms the idea that carnivory has evolved by recycling the already available
molecular machineries of the ubiquitous plant immune system.
To better understand the mutant’s defect in the trap snapping mechanism, the ground states
(unstimulated traps) of the two phenotypes were compared. In this case, many cell wall-related
genes (e.g. expansins) were downregulated in the ’ERROR’ mutant. For the first time, these
data point to the importance of a special cell wall architecture of the trap, that might confer
the mechanical properties needed for a functional buckling system - which amplifies the speed
of the trap closure.
This study provides candidate channels for each of the AP phases that give rise to and shape
the sharp Venus flytrap-specific AP. It further underlines the possible contribution of the cell
wall architecture to the metastable ready-to-snap configuration of the trap before stimulation
- which might be crucial for the buckling-dependent snapping. And finally, it highlights
molecular milestones linked to defence responses that ensure trap morphing into a green
stomach after mechanostimulation. Altogether, these processes prove to be interdependent
and essential for a successful carnivorous lifestyle.
Electrophysiological analyses conducted about 25 years ago detected two types of anion channels in the plasma membrane of guard cells. One type of channel responds slowly to changes in membrane voltage while the other responds quickly. Consequently, they were named SLAC, for SLow Anion Channel, and QUAC, for QUick Anion Channel. Recently, genes SLAC1 and QUAC1/ALMT12, underlying the two different anion current components, could be identified in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Expression of the gene products in Xenopus oocytes confirmed the quick and slow current kinetics. In this study we provide an overview on our current knowledge on slow and quick anion channels in plants and analyze the molecular evolution of ALMT/QUAC-like and SLAC-like channels. We discovered fingerprints that allow screening databases for these channel types and were able to identify 192 (177 non-redundant) SLAC-like and 422 (402 non-redundant) ALMT/QUAC-like proteins in the fully sequenced genomes of 32 plant species. Phylogenetic analyses provided new insights into the molecular evolution of these channel types. We also combined sequence alignment and clustering with predictions of protein features, leading to the identification of known conserved phosphorylation sites in SLAC1-like channels along with potential sites that have not been yet experimentally confirmed. Using a similar strategy to analyze the hydropathicity of ALMT/QUAC-like channels, we propose a modified topology with additional transmembrane regions that integrates structure and function of these membrane proteins. Our results suggest that cross-referencing phylogenetic analyses with position-specific protein properties and functional data could be a very powerful tool for genome research approaches in general.
Summary Background: In a previous study, nitrate reductase (NR, EC 1.6.6.1) from leaves of Ricinus communis L. showed different regulatory properties from most other higher plants NR's by an unusually strong Mg2+-sensitivity, a different pH-activity profile and only little ATP-dependent inactivation. The aim of this work was to elucidate the deviating properties of Ricinus NR in more details, from both molecular and physiological aspects. For that purpose, the NR gene from R. communis was cloned, expressed heterologously and characterized. Results: The deduced protein sequence showed that Ricinus NR shared high similarity with other NRs, apart from the N-terminal region. In the N-terminal region, the Ricinus NR possesses an acidic stretch which is conserved only in higher plants. Within the Moco-binding domain the Ricinus NR contained few amino acid residues which were unique in comparison with 17 plant NRs, including His103, Gln123, Val266 and Ala284 where other NRs possess asparagine, arginine, aspartate and praline. In the Dimer interface and Hinge 1 regions, the Ricinus NR also had some unique residues like Asn460 and Ala498 where other NRs have isoleucine and glycine instead. The Ricinus NR possesses an Arg482 which provides an additional predicted Trypsin cleavage site within 481KRHK484 (while most of plant-NRs possess KPHK). Additionally, the Ricinus NR contains a serine phosphorylation site (Ser-526) within the potential 14-3-3 binding motif 523KSVS*TP528, which is a common characteristic of nitrate reductases. In the C-Terminus of Ricinus NR a sequence 886CGPPP890 confirmed that Ricinus NR is a NADH-specific enzyme. Functional Ricinus NR protein was expressed in Pichia pastoris and compared with the features of Arabidopsis NR2 synthesized by the same expression system (AtNR2). The recombinant Ricinus NR (RcNR) itself was unresponsive to the incubation with MgATP, and so was AtNR2. As yeast extracts might lack factors required for NR regulation, desalted leaf extracts containing NR kinases and 14-3-3s were prepared from 4-day darkened (and therefore NR-free) leaves of Arabidopsis (ADL), spinach (SDL) and Ricinus (RDL), and added to the assay of RcNR and AtNR2 to check for ATP-dependent inactivation and Mg2+-sensitivity. When RcNR was combined with the NR-free extracts described above, it's unusually high Mg2+-sensitivity was restored only by incubation with RDL, but it remained unresponsive to ATP. In contrast, AtNR2 became inactive when incubated with the protein mixtures and ATP. It is obvious that one or some factors existing in RDL could interact with RcNR and therefore provide its high Mg2+-sensitivity. Interestingly, incubation of AtNR2 with different NR-free leaf extracts gave a significant activation of the enzyme activities, both in Mg2+ and EDTA, which were not observed in the case of RcNR. Moreover, using ammonium sulfate to fractionation the RDL revealed that about 0.2 mg of the protein factor(s) from 0-35% of ammonium sulfate precipitation was sufficient to provide the maximum inhibition of the RcNR. Conclusions: The insensitivity to ATP appears an inherent property of Ricinus NR, whereas the high Mg2+-sensitivity depends on one or several factors in Ricinus leaves. This as yet unknown factor(s) was boiling-sensitive and could be precipitated by ammonium sulfate. It appeared to interact specifically with recombinant Ricinus-NR to provide the Mg2+-sensitivity of the authentic leaf enzyme. Presumably, there is also a positive regulatory factor(s) for nitrate reductase existing in the leaves of higher plants.
Flowering plants or angiosperms have developed a fertilization mechanism that involves a female egg and central cell, as well as two male sperm cells. A male gametophyte carries the two non-mobile sperm cells, as they need to be delivered to the female gametophyte, the embryo sac. This transport is initiated by a pollen grain that is transmitted onto the stigma of the angiosperm flower. Here it hydrates, germinates, and forms a pollen tube, which navigates through the female plant tissue towards the ovary. The pollen tube grows into an ovule through the funiculus and into one of the two synergid cells. There, growth arrests and the pollen tube bursts, releasing the two sperm cells. One of the sperm cells fuses with the egg cell, giving rise to the embryo, the other one fuses with the central cell, developing into the endosperm, which nourishes the embryo during its development. After a successful fertilization, each ovule develops into a seed and a fruit is formed. This usually consists of several fertilized ovules.
The directional growth of the pollen tube through the maternal tissues towards the ovule, as well as sperm cell release, requires a complex communication between the male and the female gametophyte to achieve reproductive success. Over the last years many studies have been performed, contributing to the understanding of cell-cell communication events between the two gametophytes, nevertheless still many aspects remain to be elucidated.
This work focused on two topics: i.) Analysis of biological processes affected by pollination and fertilization in the Nicotiana tabacum flower and identification of cysteine rich proteins (CRPs) expressed via isolating and sequencing RNA from the tissue and analyzing the resulting data. ii.) Identification of the defensin-like protein (DEFL) responsible for pollen tube attraction towards the ovule in tobacco.
First, tissue samples of pollen tubes and mature ovules were taken at different stages of the fertilization process (unpollinated ovules, after pollination, and after fertilization of the flower). RNA was then isolated and a transcriptome was created. The resulting reads were assembled and transcriptome data analysis was performed. Results showed that pollen tubes and mature ovules differ severely from each other, only sharing about 23 % of the transcripts, indicating that different biological processes are dominant in the two gametophytes. A MapMan analysis revealed that in the pollen tube the most relevant biological processes are related to the cell wall, signaling, and transport, which supports the fact that the pollen tube grows fast to reach the ovule. On the other hand, in the ovule the values of highest significance were obtained for processes related to protein synthesis and regulation. Upon comparing the transcripts in the ovule before and after pollination, as well as after fertilization, it showed that pollination of the flower causes a bigger alteration in the ovule on the transcriptomic level compared to the step from pollination to fertilization.
A total of 953 CRPs were identified in Nicotiana tabacum, including 116 DEFLs. Among those, the peptide responsible for pollen tube attraction towards the ovule should be found. Based on in-silico analysis four candidate peptides were chosen for further analysis, two of which had increased expression levels upon pollination and fertilization and the other two displayed an opposite expression. Quantitative real time PCR experiments were performed for the candidates, confirming the in-silico data in vivo.
The candidate transcripts were then expressed in a cell free system and applied to pollen tubes in order to test their effect on the growing cells. Positive controls were used, where pollen tubes grew towards freshly dissected ovules. The four candidates did not provoke a pollen tube attraction towards the peptide, leaving open the chance to work on the 112 remaining DEFLs in the future.
While beneficial sponge-microbe associations have received much attention in recent years, less effort has been undertaken to investigate the interactions of sponges with potentially pathogenic microorganisms. Thus, the aim of this study was to examine two selected Caribbean disease conditions, termed “Sponge Orange Band” and “Sponge White Patch”, via ecological and molecular methods. Sponge Orange Band (SOB) disease affects the prominent Caribbean barrel sponge Xestospongia muta that is counted among the high-microbial-abundance (HMA) sponges, whereas Sponge White Patch (SWP) disease affects the abundant rope sponge Amphimedon compressa that belongs to the low-microbial-abundance (LMA) sponges. I have documented for both Caribbean sponge diseases a disease progression going along with massive tissue destruction as well as loss of the characteristic microbial signatures. Even though new bacteria were shown to colonize the bleached areas, the infection trials revealed in both cases no indication for the involvement of a microbial pathogen as an etiologic agent of disease leaving us still in the dark about the cause of Sponge Orange Band as well as Sponge White Patch disease.
Adjuvants are compounds added to an agrochemical spray formulation to improve or modify the action of an active ingredient (AI) or the physico-chemical characteristics of the spray liquid. Adjuvants can have more than only one distinct mode of action (MoA) during the foliar spray application process and they are generally known to be the best tools to improve agrochemical formulations. The main objective for this work was to elucidate the basic MoA of adjuvants by uncoupling different aspects of the spray application. Laboratory experiments, beginning from retention and spreading characteristics, followed by humectant effects concerning the spray deposit on the leaf surface and ultimately the cuticular penetration of an AI, were figured out to evaluate overall in vivo effects of adjuvants which were also obtained in a greenhouse spray test. For this comprehensive study, the surfactant classes of non-ionic sorbitan esters (Span), polysorbates (Tween) and oleyl alcohol polyglycol ether (Genapol O) were generally considered because of their common promoting potential in agrochemical formulations and their structural diversity.
The reduction of interfacial tension is one of the most crucial physico-chemical properties of surfactants. The dynamic surface tension (DST) was monitored to characterise the surface tension lowering behaviour which is known to influence the droplet formation and retention characteristics. The DST is a function of time and the critical time frame of droplet impact might be at about 100 ms. None of the selected surfactants were found to lower the surface tension sufficiently during this short timeframe (chapter I). At ca. 100 ms, Tween 20 resulted in the lowest DST value. When surfactant monomers are fully saturated at the droplet-air-interface, an equilibrium surface tension (STeq) value can be determined which may be used to predict spreading or run-off effects. The majority of selected surfactants resulted in a narrow distribution of STeq values, ranging between 30 and 45 mN m- 1. Nevertheless, all surfactants were able to decrease the surface tension considerably compared to pure water (72 mN m- 1). The influence of different surfactants on the wetting process was evaluated by studying time-dependent static contact angles on different surfaces and the droplet spread area on Triticum aestivum leaves after water evaporation. The spreading potential was observed to be better for Spans than for Tweens. Especially Span 20 showed maximum spreading results. To transfer laboratory findings to spray application, related to field conditions, retention and leaf coverage was measured quantitatively on wheat leaves by using a variable track sprayer. Since the retention process involves short time dynamics, it is well-known that the spray retention on a plant surface is not correlated to STeq but to DST values. The relationship between DST at ca. 100 ms and results from the track sprayer showed increasing retention results with decreasing DST, whereas at DST values below ca. 60 mN m- 1 no further retention improvement could be observed.
Under field conditions, water evaporates from the droplet within a few seconds to minutes after droplet deposition on the leaf surface. Since precipitation of the AI must essentially being avoided by holding the AI in solution, so-called humectants are used as tank-mix adjuvants. The ability of pure surfactants to absorb water from the surrounding atmosphere was investigated comprehensively by analysing water sorption isotherms (chapter II). These isotherms showed an exponential shape with a steep water sorption increase starting at 60% to 70% RH. Water sorption was low for Spans and much more distinct for the polyethoxylated surfactants (Tweens and Genapol O series). The relationship between the water sorption behaviour and the molecular structure of surfactants was considered as the so-called humectant activity. With an increasing ethylene oxide (EO) content, the humectant activity increased concerning the particular class of Genapol O. However, it could be shown that the moisture absorption across all classes of selected surfactants correlates rather better with their hydrophilic-lipophilic balance values with the EO content.
All aboveground organs of plants are covered by the cuticular membrane which is therefore the first rate limiting barrier for AI uptake. In vitro penetration experiments through an astomatous model cuticle were performed to study the effects of adjuvants on the penetration of the lipophilic herbicide Pinoxaden (PXD) (chapter III). In order to understand the influence of different adjuvant MoA like humectancy, experiments were performed under three different humidity levels. No explicit relationship could be found between humidity levels and the PXD penetration which might be explained by the fact that humidity effects would rather affect hydrophilic AIs than lipophilic ones. Especially for Tween 20, it became obvious that a complex balance between multiple MoA like spreading, humectancy and plasticising effects have to be considered.
Greenhouse trials, focussing the adjuvant impact on in vivo action of PXD, were evaluated on five different grass-weed species (chapter III). Since agrochemical spray application and its following action on living plants also includes translocation processes in planta and species dependent physiological effects, this investigation may help to simulate the situation on the field. Even though the absolute weed damage was different, depending both on plant species and also on PXD rates, adjuvant effects in greenhouse experiments displayed the same ranking as in cuticular penetration studies: Tween 20 > Tween 80 > Span 20 ≥ Span 80.
Thus, the present work shows for the first time that findings obtained in laboratory experiments can be successfully transferred to spray application studies on living plants concerning adjuvant MoA. A comparative analysis, using radar charts, could demonstrate systematic derivations from structural similarities of adjuvants to their MoA (summarising discussion and outlook). Exemplarily, Tween 20 and Tween 80 cover a wide range of selected variables by having no outstanding MoA improving one distinct process during foliar application, compared to non-ethoxylated Span 20 and Span 80 which primarily revealed a surface active action. Most adjuvants used in this study represent polydisperse mixtures bearing a complex distribution of EO and aliphatic chains. From this study it seems alike that adjuvants having a wide EO distribution offer broader potential than adjuvants with a small EO distribution. It might be a speculation that due to this broad distribution of single molecules, all bearing their individual specific physico-chemical nature, a wide range of properties concerning their MoA is covered.
Mining Genomes of Three Marine Sponge-Associated Actinobacterial Isolates for Secondary Metabolism
(2015)
Here, we report the draft genome sequences of three actinobacterial isolates, Micromonospora sp. RV43, Rubrobacter sp. RV113, and Nocardiopsis sp. RV163 that had previously been isolated from Mediterranean sponges. The draft genomes were analyzed for the presence of gene clusters indicative of secondary metabolism using antiSMASH 3.0 and NapDos pipelines. Our findings demonstrated the chemical richness of sponge-associated actinomycetes and the efficacy of genome mining in exploring the genomic potential of sponge-derived actinomycetes.
Marine invertebrate-associated symbiotic bacteria produce a plethora of novel secondary metabolites which may be structurally unique with interesting pharmacological properties. Selection of strains usually relies on literature searching, genetic screening and bioactivity results, often without considering the chemical novelty and abundance of secondary metabolites being produced by the microorganism until the time-consuming bioassay-guided isolation stages. To fast track the selection process, metabolomic tools were used to aid strain selection by investigating differences in the chemical profiles of 77 bacterial extracts isolated from cold water marine invertebrates from Orkney, Scotland using liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Following mass spectrometric analysis and dereplication using an Excel macro developed in-house, principal component analysis (PCA) was employed to differentiate the bacterial strains based on their chemical profiles. NMR H-1 and correlation spectroscopy (COSY) were also employed to obtain a chemical fingerprint of each bacterial strain and to confirm the presence of functional groups and spin systems. These results were then combined with taxonomic identification and bioassay screening data to identify three bacterial strains, namely Bacillus sp. 4117, Rhodococcus sp. ZS402 and Vibrio splendidus strain LGP32, to prioritize for scale-up based on their chemically interesting secondary metabolomes, established through dereplication and interesting bioactivities, determined from bioassay screening.
Metabolomic profiling of different Premna odorata Blanco (Lamiaceae) organs, bark, wood, young stems, flowers, and fruits dereplicated 20, 20, 10, 20, and 20 compounds, respectively, using LC–HRESIMS. The identified metabolites (1–34) belonged to different chemical classes, including iridoids, flavones, phenyl ethanoids, and lignans. A phytochemical investigation of P. odorata bark afforded one new tetrahydrofurofuran lignan, 4β-hydroxyasarinin 35, along with fourteen known compounds. The structure of the new compound was confirmed using extensive 1D and 2D NMR, and HRESIMS analyses. A cytotoxic investigation of compounds 35–38 against the HL-60, HT-29, and MCF-7 cancer cell lines, using the MTT assay showed that compound 35 had cytotoxic effects against HL-60 and MCF-7 with IC50 values of 2.7 and 4.2 µg/mL, respectively. A pharmacophore map of compounds 35 showed two hydrogen bond acceptor (HBA) aligning the phenoxy oxygen atoms of benzodioxole moieties, two aromatic ring features vectored on the two phenyl rings, one hydrogen bond donor (HBD) feature aligning the central hydroxyl group and thirteen exclusion spheres which limit the boundaries of sterically inaccessible regions of the target’s active site.
Protein purification is the vital basis to study the function, structure and interaction of proteins. Widely used methods are affinity chromatography-based purifications, which require different chromatography columns and harsh conditions, such as acidic pH and/or adding imidazole or high salt concentration, to elute and collect the purified proteins. Here we established an easy and fast purification method for soluble proteins under mild conditions, based on the light-induced protein dimerization system improved light-induced dimer (iLID), which regulates protein binding and release with light. We utilize the biological membrane, which can be easily separated by centrifugation, as the port to anchor the target proteins. In Xenopus laevis oocyte and Escherichia coli, the blue light-sensitive part of iLID, AsLOV2-SsrA, was targeted to the plasma membrane by different membrane anchors. The other part of iLID, SspB, was fused with the protein of interest (POI) and expressed in the cytosol. The SspB-POI can be captured to the membrane fraction through light-induced binding to AsLOV2-SsrA and then released purely to fresh buffer in the dark after simple centrifugation and washing. This method, named mem-iLID, is very flexible in scale and economic. We demonstrate the quickly obtained yield of two pure and fully functional enzymes: a DNA polymerase and a light-activated adenylyl cyclase. Furthermore, we also designed a new SspB mutant for better dissociation and less interference with the POI, which could potentially facilitate other optogenetic manipulations of protein–protein interaction.
NO has been described as an important component involved in the development of the hypersensitive reaction (Delledonne et.al., 1998). Furthermore, NO induces expression of a set of defence gene, such as PR-1, PAL1 and chalcone synthase (CHS), and accumulation of SA (Durner et al., 1998). In this study, transgenic plants with altered NO levels were used to study the role of NO in plant defence. Arabidopsis plants which, due to expression of a bacterial NO dioxygenase, exhibit lower levels of NO than wild-type plants, show several weakened defence response, including the oxidative burst and expression of phenylpropanoid pathway genes. By contrast, constitutive expression of a bacterial NO synthase in Arabisopsis results in increased levels of endogenous NO. However, these plants do not show constitutively activated defence responses, but suffer from increased susceptibility to various strains of P. syringae. This might indicate that a gradient in NO production rather than constitutive elevation of NO is necessary to trigger plant defence responses. Nevertheless, NO seems to be important for regulation of the oxidative state in plant cells. This function of NO is important during leaf senescence. The data of the present work indicate that NO acts as senescence-delaying factor during plant development. The molecular action of NO in plants and signalling cascades in which NO is involved as second messenger are still poorly understood. Experiments addressing the selective quantification of NO in intact plant tissue, the identification of NO-target proteins as well as the function of NO-modified biomolecules might help to understand the role of NO in plants. Non-host resistance consists of several layers of defence that include preformed compounds existing in plants before pathogen infection and induced defences which the plant activates after recognition of a pathogen. The role of inducible defences in preventing multiplication of non-adapted bacteria is not clear. Our experiments suggest that to restrict non-adapted bacterial growth, pre-formed antimicrobial compounds and an early inducible cell wall-based defence might play an important role in Arabidopsis leaves. Upon inoculation with non-adapted bacteria, we have observed early, TTSS-independent up-regulation of PAL1 and BCB, two lignin biosynthesis genes which might be involved in papilla formation or other kinds of cell wall fortification. Moreover, Arabidopsis pal1 knockout lines permit significantly higher survival of non-adapted bacteria in leaves than wild-type plants, suggesting a functional importance of PAL1 up-regulation. Although non-host bacteria, like host bacteria, induce accumulation of SA and PR gene expression in a TTSS-dependent manner, SA-dependent or JA/ET-dependent defences do not directly contribute to non-host resistance. Moreover, non-adapted bacteria activate similar defence signalling pathways as do host bacteria. However, because of varieties in effector protein composition between different non-adapted bacterial strains, the activated signalling pathways might also include different compounds. The Arabidopsis ecotype Ler 0 is more susceptible to a non-adapted strain of P. syringae than ecotype Col-0. Although differences in glucosinolate content and composition between those ecotypes exist, they are probably not a major reason for the observed difference in non-host resistance. To further understand the mechanisms underlying non-host resistance, the generation of double or triple mutants with deficits in both cell wall-based defences and SA-dependent signal cascades is necessary. Moreover, the study of genome polymorphism and composition of secondary metabolites between Ler-0 and Col-0 can shed new light into the mechanisms of non-host resistance against bacterial pathogens. Additionally, experiments addressing papilla formation and callose biosynthesis in Ler-0 and Col-0 could help to further elucidate bacterial non-host resistance. Our data indicate that localized contact of Arabidopsis leaves with non-adapted bacteria, type III secretion-defective P. syringae strains and bacterial pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) induce systemic acquired resistance (SAR) at the whole plant level. This finding contrasts the general belief that an HR or other leaf necroses are required for SAR induction. The observed symptomless systemic response was abolished in all SAR-deficient mutants tested in this study, but was intact in the jar1 mutant, which is compromised in induction of ISR, indicating that non-host bacteria and PAMPs induce SAR in a mechanistically similar way than host bacteria. In addition, our data show that the extent of SA accumulation or PR gene expression induced at sites of virulent or avirulent P. syringae inoculation rather than the amount of tissue necroses or jasmonate accumulation determine the magnitude of SAR. The fact that systemic responses were also triggered after local treatment with type III secretion-defective P. syringae strains and bacterial PAMPs indicate that induction of SAR is TTSS-independent. Instead, recognition of general elicitors like flagellin and LPS play an important role in activation of the SAR process. To broaden the concept of PAMP-based SAR initiation, further general elicitors from bacteria and fungal pathogens should be tested for their capability to induce SAR. Screens for mutants with deficiency in SAR activation by individual PAMPs can help to identify new components involved in the SAR signalling cascade. Possible functions of PAMPs as mobile systemic signals should be tested in future experiments. By selection of candidate genes whose expression is up-regulated in Arabidopsis leaves infected with avirulent and virulent P. syringae and pathophysiological analyses of corresponding T-DNA knockout lines, FLAVIN-DEPENDENT MONOOXYGENASE1 (FMO1) was identified as a key SAR regulator. SAR triggered by P. syringae is completely abolished in fmo1 mutant plants, and pathogen-induced expression of FMO1 in systemic leaves is closely correlated with the capability of different Arabidopsis lines to develop SAR. According to our findings, we have proposed that the FMO1 acts in signal amplification in non-inoculated, systemic leaves to trigger SAR. Experimental verification of the postulated potential amplification cycle underlying SAR should be tested in future experiments. The generation of transgenic lines expressing FMO1::GFP will provide useful information about the cellular localization of the FMO1 protein. Moreover, a comparative metabolomic analysis using SAR-induced wild-type, fmo1 knockout and FMO1 overexpressing lines can be used to identify substrates and reaction products of the FMO1 monooxygenase. As the single yeast FMO (yFMO) provides oxidizing equivalents at the ER for correct protein folding, expression of FMO1 in yfmo mutant yeast combined with protein activity assays might indicate whether FMO1 exhibits functional similarities with yeast FMO, e.g. in assuring proper folding of ER-targeted proteins essential for SAR establishment. Identification of further genes involved in activation of systemic resistance and biochemical characterization of the corresponding proteins can help to understand the SAR process in more detail.
The objective of this Thesis was to progress the understanding of the mechanisms of cuticular uptake into living plant foliage, thereby enabling uptake of important compounds such as pesticides and pollutants to be modelled. The uptake of three model compounds, applied in the presence and absence of surfactants, into the leaves of three plant species (Chenopodium album L., Hedera helix L. and Stephanotis floribunda Brongn) was determined. The results with 2-deoxy-D-glucose (DOG), 2,4-dichlorophenoxy-acetic acid (2,4-D) and epoxiconazole in the presence of surfactants (the polyethylene glycol monododecyl ethers C12EO3, C12EO6, C12EO10, and a trisiloxane ethoxylate with mean ethylene oxide (EO) content of 7.5, all used at one equimolar concentration) illustrated that the initial dose (nmol mm-2) of xenobiotic applied to plant foliage was a strong positive determinant of uptake. Using this new approach for whole plant uptake, uptake on a per unit area basis was found to be related to initial dose of xenobiotic applied, by an equation of the form: Uptake(nmol mm-2) = a [ID]b at time t = 24 hours, where ID is the initial dose or the mass of xenobiotic applied per unit area (M(nmol xenobiotic applied)/A(droplet spread area)). Total mass uptake can then be calculated from an equation of the form: Total Uptake(nmol) = a [ID]b.A. In order to verify this relationship, further studies determined the uptake of three pesticides, applied as commercial and model formulations in the presence of a wide range of surfactants, into the leaves of three plant species (bentazone into Chenopodium album L. and Sinapis alba L., epoxiconazole and pyraclostrobin into Triticum aestivum L.). The results confirmed that the initial dose (nmol mm-2) of xenobiotic applied to plant foliage is a strong, positive determinant of uptake. In a novel approach, further studies used this relationship (nmol mm-2 uptake versus ID; termed the uptake ratio) to establish the relative importance of species, active ingredient (AI), AI concentration (g L-1) and surfactant to uptake. Species, AI, its concentration, and surfactant all significantly affected the uptake ratio. Overall, 88% of the deviance could be explained. More useful was the analysis of the individual xenobiotics, where the models explained 83%, 85%, and 94% of the variance in uptake ratio for DOG, 2,4-D, and epoxiconazole, respectively. In all cases, species, surfactant, and AI concentration significantly affected the uptake ratio. However, there were differences in the relative importance of these factors among the xenobiotics studied. Concentration of AI increased in importance with increasing lipophilicity of AI, while species was much less important for the most lipophilic compound. Surfactant became less important with increasing AI lipophilicity, although it was always important. The preceding studies considered uptake at only one time interval (24 hours). Total uptake after 24 hours can be the same for a compound formulated with different surfactants, but rates of uptake (and therefore rain-fastness and subsequent translocation to target sites) can be quite different. Therefore, there was a requirement to be able to model uptake over time into whole plants. Hence, the objective of further studies was to determine whether a logistic-kinetic penetration model, developed using isolated plant cuticles, could be applied to whole plant uptake. Uptake over 24 hours was determined for three model compounds, applied in the presence and absence of surfactants, into the leaves of two plant species. Overall, the model fitted the whole plant uptake data well. Using the equations developed, based on initial dose, to calculate uptake at 24 hours, in conjunction with the logistic-kinetic model, has significantly progressed our understanding and ability to model uptake. The advantages of the models and equations described are that few variables are required, and they are simple to measure.
Marine sponge-derived Streptomyces sp SBT343 extract inhibits staphylococcal biofilm formation
(2017)
Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus aureus are opportunistic pathogens that cause nosocomial and chronic biofilm-associated infections. Indwelling medical devices and contact lenses are ideal ecological niches for formation of staphylococcal biofilms. Bacteria within biofilms are known to display reduced susceptibilities to antimicrobials and are protected from the host immune system. High rates of acquired antibiotic resistances in staphylococci and other biofilm-forming bacteria further hamper treatment options and highlight the need for new anti-biofilm strategies. Here, we aimed to evaluate the potential of marine sponge-derived actinomycetes in inhibiting biofilm formation of several strains of S. epidermidis, S. aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Results from in vitro biofilm-formation assays, as well as scanning electron and confocal microscopy, revealed that an organic extract derived from the marine sponge-associated bacterium Streptomyces sp. SBT343 significantly inhibited staphylococcal biofilm formation on polystyrene, glass and contact lens surfaces, without affecting bacterial growth. The extract also displayed similar antagonistic effects towards the biofilm formation of other S. epidermidis and S. aureus strains tested but had no inhibitory effects towards Pseudomonas biofilms. Interestingly the extract, at lower effective concentrations, did not exhibit cytotoxic effects on mouse fibroblast, macrophage and human corneal epithelial cell lines. Chemical analysis by High Resolution Fourier Transform Mass Spectrometry (HRMS) of the Streptomyces sp. SBT343 extract proportion revealed its chemical richness and complexity. Preliminary physico-chemical characterization of the extract highlighted the heat-stable and non-proteinaceous nature of the active component(s). The combined data suggest that the Streptomyces sp. SBT343 extract selectively inhibits staphylococcal biofilm formation without interfering with bacterial cell viability. Due to absence of cell toxicity, the extract might represent a good starting material to develop a future remedy to block staphylococcal biofilm formation on contact lenses and thereby to prevent intractable contact lens-mediated ocular infections.
The fruit fly Drosophila is a prime model in circadian research, but still little is known about its circadian regulation of metabolism. Daily rhythmicity in levels of several metabolites has been found, but knowledge about hydrophobic metabolites is limited. We here compared metabolite levels including lipids between period\(^{01}\) (per\(^{01}\)) clock mutants and Canton-S wildtype (WT\(_{CS}\)) flies in an isogenic and non-isogenic background using LC–MS. In the non-isogenic background, metabo-lites with differing levels comprised essential amino acids, kynurenines, pterinates, glycero(phospho)lipids, and fatty acid esters. Notably, detectable diacylglycerols (DAG) and acylcarnitines (AC), involved in lipid metabolism, showed lower levels in per\(^{01}\) mutants. Most of these differences disappeared in the isogenic background, yet the level differences for AC as well as DAG were consistent for fly bodies. AC levels were dependent on the time of day in WTCS in phase with food consumption under LD conditions, while DAGs showed weak daily oscillations. Two short-chain ACs continued to cycle even in constant darkness. per\(^{01}\) mutants in LD showed no or very weak diel AC oscillations out of phase with feeding activity. The low levels of DAGs and ACs in per\(^{01}\) did not correlate with lower total food consumption, body mass or weight. Clock mutant flies showed higher sensitivity to starvation independent of their background-dependent activity level. Our results suggest that neither feeding, energy storage nor mobilisation is significantly affected in per\(^{01}\) mutants, but point towards impaired mitochondrial activity, supported by upregulation of the mitochondrial stress marker 4EBP in the clock mutants
Embryo implantation requires a hospitable uterine environment. A key metabolic change that occurs during the peri-implantation period, and throughout early pregnancy, is the rise in endometrial glycogen content. Glycogen accumulation requires prior cellular uptake of glucose. Here we show that both human and murine endometrial epithelial cells express the high affinity Na\(^+\)-coupled glucose carrier SGLT1. Ussing chamber experiments revealed electrogenic glucose transport across the endometrium in wild type (\(Slc5a1^{+/+}\)) but not in SGLT1 defcient (\(Slc5a1^{−/−}\)) mice. Endometrial glycogen content, litter size and weight of offspring at birth were signifcantly lower in \(Slc5a1^{−/−}\) mice. In humans, \(SLC5A1\) expression was upregulated upon decidualization of primary endometrial stromal cells. Endometrial \(SLC5A1\) expression during the implantation window was attenuated in patients with recurrent pregnancy loss when compared with control subjects. Our fndings reveal a novel mechanism establishing adequate endometrial glycogen stores for pregnancy. Disruption of this histiotrophic pathway leads to adverse pregnancy outcome.
Inoculation with plant pathogens induces a diverse range of plant responses which potentially contribute to disease resistance or susceptibility. Plant responses occuring in consequence of pathogen infection include activation of classical defence pathways and changes in metabolic activity. The main defence route against hemibiotrophic bacterial pathogens such as Pseudomonas syringae is based on the phytohormone salicylic acid (SA). SA-mediated responses are strictly regulated and have also been shown to depend on external factors, e.g. the presence of light. A major goal of this work was to provide a better understanding of the light dependency of plant defence responses mediated through SA. The second part of the project focussed on the influence of plant sterols on plant resistance. I analyzed leaf lipid composition and found that accumulation of the phytosterol stigmasterol in leaves and in isolated (plasma) membranes is a significant plant metabolic process occurring upon pathogen infection.
Arabidopsis thaliana (A.th.) mesophyll cells play a pivotal role in the regulation of the drought stress response. The signaling & transport components involved in drought stress regulation within lipid rafts of the plasma membrane were investigated by DRM isolation from highly purified plasma membranes. Detergent treatment with Brij-98 and Triton X-100 resulted in a total of 246 DRM proteins which were identified by nano HPLC-MS/MS. The majority of these proteins could be isolated by Triton X-100 treatment (78.5 %) which remains the ”golden” standard for the isolation of DRMs. Comparing in-gel and in-solution digestion approaches disclosed additional protein identifications for each method but the in-gel approach clearly delivered the majority of the identified proteins (81.8 %). Functionally, a clear bias on signaling proteins was visible – almost 1/3 of the detected DRM proteins belonged to the group of kinases, phosphatases and other signaling proteins. Especially leucine-rich repeat receptor-like protein kinases and calcium-dependent protein kinases were present in Brij-98 & Triton X-100 DRMs, for instance the calcium-dependent protein kinase CPK21. Another prominent member of DRMs was the protein phosphatase 2C 56, ABI1, which is a key regulator of the ABA-mediated drought stress response in A.th. The lipid raft localization of the identified DRM proteins was confirmed by sterol-depletion with the chemical drug MCD. Proteins which depend upon a sterol-rich environment are depleted from DRMs by MCD application. Especially signaling proteins exhibited a strong sterol-dependency. They represented the vast majority (41.5 %) among the Triton X-100 DRM proteins which were no longer detected following MCD treatment. AtRem 1.2 & 1.3 could be shown to be sterol-dependent in mesophyll cells as well as two CPKs (CPK10 & CPK21) and the protein phosphatase ABI1. AtRem 1.2 & 1.3 could be proven to represent ideal plant lipid raft marker proteins due to their strong presence in Triton X-100 DRMs and dependency upon a sterol-rich environment. When fluorescence labeled AtRem 1.2 & 1.3 were transiently expressed in A.th. leaves, they localized to small, patchy structures at the plasma membrane. CPK21 was an intrinsic member of Triton X-100 DRMs and displayed extreme susceptibility to sterol-depletion by MCD in immunological and proteomic assays. Calcium-dependent protein kinases (CPKs) have already been studied to be involved in drought stress regulation, for instance at the regulation of S-type anion channels in guard cells. Hence, further transient expression studies with the anion channel SLAH3, protein kinase CPK21 and its counterpart, protein phosphatase ABI1 were performed in Nicotiana benthamiana. Transient co-expression of CPK21 and the anion channel SLAH3, a highly mesophyll- specific homologue of the guard cell anion channel SLAC1, resulted in a combined, sterol-dependent localization of both proteins in DRMs. Supplementary co-expression of the counterpart protein phosphatase ABI1 induced dislocation of SLAH3 from DRMs, probably by inactivation of the protein kinase CPK21. CPK21 is known to regulate the anion channel SLAH3 by phosphorylation. ABI1 dephosphorylates CPK21 thus leading to deactivation and dislocation of SLAH3 from DRMs. All this regulative events are taking place in DRMs of A.th. mesophyll cells. This study presents the first evidence for a lipid raft-resident protein complex combining signaling and transport functions in A.th. Future perspectives for lipid raft research might target investigations on the lipid raft localization of candidate DRM proteins under presence of abiotic and biotic stress factors. For instance, which alterations in the DRM protein composition are detectable upon exogenous application of the plant hormone ABA? Quantitative proteomics approaches will surely increase our knowledge of the post-transcriptional regulation of gene activity under drought stress conditions.
The "Candidatus Synechococcus spongiarum" group includes different clades of cyanobacteria with high 16S rRNA sequence identity (~99%) and is the most abundant and widespread cyanobacterial symbiont of marine sponges. The first draft genome of a "Ca. Synechococcus spongiarum" group member was recently published, providing evidence of genome reduction by loss of genes involved in several nonessential functions. However, "Ca. Synechococcus spongiarum" includes a variety of clades that may differ widely in genomic repertoire and consequently in physiology and symbiotic function. Here, we present three additional draft genomes of "Ca. Synechococcus spongiarum," each from a different clade. By comparing all four symbiont genomes to those of free-living cyanobacteria, we revealed general adaptations to life inside sponges and specific adaptations of each phylotype. Symbiont genomes shared about half of their total number of coding genes. Common traits of "Ca. Synechococcus spongiarum" members were a high abundance of DNA modification and recombination genes and a reduction in genes involved in inorganic ion transport and metabolism, cell wall biogenesis, and signal transduction mechanisms. Moreover, these symbionts were characterized by a reduced number of antioxidant enzymes and low-weight peptides of photosystem II compared to their free-living relatives. Variability within the "Ca. Synechococcus spongiarum" group was mostly related to immune system features, potential for siderophore-mediated iron transport, and dependency on methionine from external sources. The common absence of genes involved in synthesis of residues, typical of the O antigen of free-living Synechococcus species, suggests a novel mechanism utilized by these symbionts to avoid sponge predation and phage attack.
IMPORTANCE
While the Synechococcus/Prochlorococcus-type cyanobacteria are widely distributed in the world's oceans, a subgroup has established its niche within marine sponge tissues. Recently, the first genome of sponge-associated cyanobacteria, " Candidatus Synechococcus spongiarum," was described. The sequencing of three representatives of different clades within this cyanobacterial group has enabled us to investigate intraspecies diversity, as well as to give a more comprehensive understanding of the common symbiotic features that adapt "Ca. Synechococcus spongiarum" to its life within the sponge host.
Introduction: Lichen dominated biological soil crusts (BSCs) occur over large areas in the Sonoran Desert of the southwestern USA and northwest Mexico. In Baja California BSCs show a distinct patchiness and several types can be distinguished. Two chlorolichen- and two cyanolichen-dominated BSCs were selected. We hypothesize that patchiness and the resulting domination of certain functional lichen groups will result in patchiness of photosynthetic CO2-uptake related to environmental factors as well.
Methods: Four different soil crust samples were placed in cuvettes and their CO2 exchange was recorded in an open system with an infrared gas analyzer. Air blown over the BSCs had a controlled CO2 content of 350 ppm. Four cuvettes were operated in parallel. Photosynthetic CO2 exchange was continually recorded throughout the experiment.
Results: Besides the dominating chlorolichens Psora decipiens and Placidium squamulosum and the cyanolichens Peltula patellata and P. richardsii, several other lichen species and 12 cyanobacterial species were found in the biological soil crusts sampled. The chlorolichen BSCs already gained positive net photosynthesis with high air humidity alone, while the cyanolichen types did not, but showed smaller CO2-uptake depression after water suprasaturation. Such specific net photosynthesis responses to mode of hydration and to crust water content seem to correlate with precipitation characteristics of their habitat.
Conclusions: Species specific photosynthetic performance related to activation of respiration and net photosynthesis as well as to crust water content help to explain niche occupation and species composition of BSCs. Different functional types have to be considered when they have a patchy distribution.
Kinetic assessment by in vitro approaches - A contribution to reduce animals in toxicity testing
(2015)
The adoption of directives and regulations by the EU requires the development of alternative testing strategies as opposed to animal testing for risk assessment of xenobiotics. Additionally, high attrition rates of drugs late in the discovery phase demand improvement of current test batteries applied in the preclinical phase within the pharmaceutical area. These issues were taken up by the EU founded 7th Framework Program “Predict-IV”; with the overall goal to improve the predictability of safety of an investigational product, after repeated exposure, by integration of “omics” technologies applied on well established in vitro approaches. Three major target organs for drug-induced toxicity were in focus: liver, kidney and central nervous system. To relate obtained dynamic data with the in vivo situation, kinetics of the test compounds have to be evaluated and extrapolated by physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling.
This thesis assessed in vitro kinetics of the selected test compounds (cyclosporine A, adefovir dipivoxil and cisplatinum) regarding their reliability and relevance to respective in vivo pharmacokinetics. Cells were exposed daily or every other day to the test compounds at two concentration levels (toxic and non-toxic) for up to 14 days. Concentrations of the test compounds or their major biotransformation products were determined by LC-MS/MS or ICP-MS in vehicle, media, cells and plastic adsorption samples generated at five different time-points on the first and the last treatment day.
Cyclosporine A bioaccumulation was evident in primary rat hepatocytes (PRH) at the high concentration, while efficient biotransformation mediated by CYP3A4 and CYP3A5 was determined in primary human hepatocytes (PHH) and HepaRG cells. The lower biotransformation in PRH is in accordance with observation made in vivo with the rat being a poor model for CYP3A biotransformation. Further, inter-assay variability was noticed in PHH caused by biological variability in CYP3A4 and CYP3A5 activity in human donors. The inter-assay variability observed for PRH and HepaRG cells was a result of differences between vehicles regarding their cyclosporine A content. Cyclosporine A biotransformation was more prominent in HepaRG cells due to stable and high CYP3A4 and CYP3A5 activity. In addition, in vitro clearances were calculated and scaled to in vivo. All scaled in vitro clearances were overestimated (PRH: 10-fold, PHH: 2-fold, HepaRG cells: 2-fold). These results should be proven by physiologically-based pharmacokinetic modeling and additional experiments, in order to verify that these overestimations are constant for each system and subsequently can be diminished by implementation of further scaling factors.
Brain cell cultures, primary neuronal culture of mouse cortex cells and primary aggregating rat brain cells, revealed fast achieved steady state levels of cyclosporine A. This indicates a chemical distribution of cyclosporine A between the aqueous and organic phases and only minor involvement of biological processes such as active transport and biotransformation. Hence, cyclosporine A uptake into cells is presumably transport mediated, supported by findings of transporter experiments performed on a parallel artificial membrane and Caco-2 cells. Plastic adsorption of cyclosporine A was significant, but different for each model, and should be considered by physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling.
Kinetics of adefovir dipivoxil highlights the limits of in vitro approaches. Active transporters are required for adefovir uptake, but were not functional in RPTECT/TERT1. Therefore, adefovir uptake was limited to passive diffusion of adefovir dipivoxil, which itself degrades time-dependently under culture conditions.
Cisplatinum kinetics, studied in RPTEC/TERT1 cells, indicated intracellular enrichment of platinum, while significant bioaccumulation was not noted. This could be due to cisplatinum not reaching steady state levels within 14 days repeated exposure. As shown in vivo, active transport occurred from the basolateral to apical side, but with lower velocity. Hence, obtained data need to be modeled to estimate cellular processes, which can be scaled and compared to in vivo.
Repeated daily exposure to two different drug concentrations makes it possible to account for bioaccumulation at toxic concentrations or biotransformation/extrusion at non-toxic concentrations. Potential errors leading to misinterpretation of data were reduced by analyses of the vehicles as the applied drug concentrations do not necessarily correspond to the nominal concentrations. Finally, analyses of separate compartments (medium, cells, plastic) give insights into a compound’s distribution, reduce misprediction of cellular processes, e.g. biotransformation, and help to interpret kinetic data. On the other hand, the limits of in vitro approaches have also been pointed out. For correct extrapolation to in vivo, it is essential that the studied in vitro system exhibits the functionality of proteins, which play a key role in the specific drug induced toxicity. Considering the benefits and limitations, it is worth to validate this long-term treatment experimental set-up and expand it on co-culture systems and on organs-on-chips with regard to alternative toxicity testing strategies for repeated dose toxicity studies.
Terrestrial actinomycetes are noteworthy producers of a multitude of antibiotics, however the marine representatives are much less studied in this regard. In this study, 90 actinomycetes were isolated from 11 different species of marine sponges that had been collected from offshore Ras Mohamed (Egypt) and from Rovinj (Croatia). Phylogenetic characterization of the isolates based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing supported their assignment to 18 different actinomycete genera representing seven different suborders. Fourteen putatively novel species were identified based on sequence similarity values below 98.2% to other strains in the NCBI database. A putative new genus related to Rubrobacter was isolated on M1 agar that had been amended with sponge extract, thus highlighting the need for innovative cultivation protocols. Testing for anti-infective activities was performed against clinically relevant, Gram-positive (Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa) bacteria, fungi (Candida albicans) and human parasites (Leishmania major, Trypanosoma brucei). Bioactivities against these pathogens were documented for 10 actinomycete isolates. These results show a high diversity of actinomycetes associated with marine sponges as well as highlight their potential to produce anti-infective agents.
A new cyclic dipeptide, petrocidin A (\(\textbf{1}\)), along with three known compounds—2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid (\(\textbf{2}\)), 2,3-dihydroxybenzamide (\(\textbf{3}\)), and maltol (\(\textbf{4}\))—were isolated from the solid culture of \(Streptomyces\) sp. SBT348. The strain \(Streptomyces\) sp. SBT348 had been prioritized in a strain collection of 64 sponge-associated actinomycetes based on its distinct metabolomic profile using liquid chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The absolute configuration of all α-amino acids was determined by HPLC analysis after derivatization with Marfey’s reagent and comparison with commercially available reference amino acids. Structure elucidation was pursued in the presented study by mass spectrometry and NMR spectral data. Petrocidin A (\(\textbf{1}\)) and 2,3-dihydroxybenzamide (\(\textbf{3}\)) exhibited significant cytotoxicity towards the human promyelocytic HL-60 and the human colon adenocarcinoma HT-29 cell lines. These results demonstrated the potential of sponge-associated actinomycetes for the discovery of novel and pharmacologically active natural products.
Low-molecular mass natural products from bacteria, fungi, plants and marine organisms exhibit unique structural diversity which are of interest for the identification of new lead structures for medicinals and agrochemicals. In the search for bioactive compounds from marine sponges and sponge-associated fungi, this research work resulted to the isolation of twenty-six compounds, eight of which are new metabolites. The sponges were collected from the Indo-pacific regions, particularly those from Indonesian and Philippine waters, as well as those from the Mediterranean Sea near the island of Elba in Italy. A combination of the chemically- and biologically-driven approach for drug discovery was employed, wherein extracts were screened for antibacterial, antifungal and cytotoxic activities. In addition to the bioassay-guided approach to purify the compounds responsible for the activity of the extract, TLC, UV and MS were also used to isolate the chemically most interesting substances. Hence, purified compounds which are not responsible for the initial bioscreening activity may have a chance to be evaluated for other bioactivities. Enumerated below are the compounds which have been isolated and structurally elucidated and whose bioactivities have been further characterized. 1. The extract of the fungus Cladosporium herbarum associated with the sponge Callyspongia aerizusa afforded seven structurally related polyketides, including two new twelve-membered macrolides: pandangolide 3 and 4, and a new acetyl congener of the previously isolated 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furoic acid. The two furoic acid analogues isolated were found to be responsible for the antimicrobial activity of the extract. The isolation of the known phytotoxin Cladospolide B from Cladosporium herbarum, which was originally known from Cladosporium cladosporioides and C. tenuissimum, indicates the possibility that Cladospolide B may be a chemotaxonomic marker of particular Cladosporium species. 2. The extract of the fungus Curvularia lunata associated with the Indonesian sponge Niphates olemda yielded three compounds, namely the new antimicrobially-active anthraquinone lunatin, the known bisanthraquinone cytoskyrin A, and the known plant hormone abscisic acid. The co-occurrence of the two structurally-related anthraquinones suggests that the monomeric lunatin may be a precursor in the biosynthesis of the bisanthraquinone cytoskyrin A. 3. The fungus Penicillium spp. associated with the Mediterranean sponge Axinella verrucosa yielded six compounds, namely the known antifungal griseofulvin and its less active dechloro analogue; the known toxin oxaline; and the known cytotoxic metabolite communesin B and its two new congeners communesin C and D. The new communesins were less active than communesin B in the brine-shrimp lethality test. 4. An unidentified fungus which was also isolated from the same Mediterranean sponge Axinella verrucosa as Penicillium spp. yielded the known compound monocerin which has been reported to possess phytotoxic and insecticidal activities. 5. The fungus Aspergillus flavus associated with the Philippine sponge Hyrtios aff. reticulatus yielded the known toxin a-cyclopiazonic acid. 6. The Indonesian sponge Agelas nakamurai yielded four bromopyrrole alkaloids namely the new compound 4-bromo-pyrrole-2-carboxylic acid, and the known compounds: 4-bromo-pyrrole-2-carboxamide, mukanadin B and mukanadin C. All of the four compounds except mukanadin B were found to be antimicrobially-active. Bromopyrrole alkaloids are well-known metabolites of the genus Agelas and are proven to play an important role in the chemical defense of the sponge against predation from fishes. 7. The Indonesian sponge Jaspis splendens yielded three known substances which are known for their antiproliferative activities, namely the depsipeptides jaspamide (jasplakinolide), and its derivatives jaspamide B and jaspamide C.
Insects have evolved an astonishing array of defences to ward off enemies. Well-known and widespread is the regurgitation of oral secretions (OS), fluids that repel attacking predators. In herbivores, the effectiveness of OS has been ascribed so far to the presence of deterrent secondary metabolites sequestered from the host plant. This notion implies, however, that generalists experience less protection on plants with low amounts of secondary metabolites or with compounds ineffective against potential enemies. Resolving the dilemma, we describe a novel defence mechanism that is independent of deterrents as it relies on the OS’ intrinsic detergent properties. The OS of Spodoptera exigua (and other species) was found to be highly amphiphilic and well capable of wetting the hydrophobic cuticle of predatory ants. As a result, affected ants stopped attacking and engaged in extensive cleansing. The presence of surfactants was sufficient to explain the defensive character of herbivore OS. We hypothesize that detergency is a common but unrecognised mode of defence which provides a base level of protection that may or may not be further enhanced by plant-derived deterrents. Our study also proves that insects ‘invented’ the use of defensive surfactants long before modern agriculture had started applying them as insecticides.
The evolution of the internal water transport system was a prerequisite for high plant productivity. In times of climate change, understanding the dependency of juvenile growth on xylem hydraulic physiology is therefore of high importance. Here, we explored various wood anatomical, hydraulic, and leaf morphological traits related to hydraulic safety and efficiency in three temperate broadleaved tree species (Acer pseudoplatanus, Betula pendula, and Sorbus aucuparia). We took advantage of a severe natural heat wave that resulted in different climatic growing conditions for even-aged plants from the same seed source growing inside a greenhouse and outside. Inside the greenhouse, the daily maximum vapour pressure deficit was on average 36% higher than outside during the growing seasons. Because of the higher atmospheric moisture stress, the biomass production differed up to 5.6-fold between both groups. Except for one species, a high productivity was associated with a high hydraulic efficiency caused by large xylem vessels and a large, supported leaf area. Although no safety-efficiency trade-off was observed, productivity was significantly related to P\(_{50}\) in two of the tree species but without revealing any clear pattern. A considerable plasticity in given traits was observed between both groups, with safety-related traits being more static while efficiency-related traits revealed a higher intra-specific plasticity. This was associated with other wood anatomical and leaf morphological adjustments. We confirm that a high hydraulic efficiency seems to be a prerequisite for a high biomass production, while our controversial results on the growth–xylem safety relationship confirm that safety-efficiency traits are decoupled and that their relationship with juvenile growth and water regime is species-specific.
Studying how cambial age and axial height affects wood anatomical traits may improve our understanding of xylem hydraulics, heartwood formation and axial growth. Radial strips were collected from six different heights (0–11.3 m) along the main trunk of three Manchurian catalpa (Catalpa bungei) trees, yielding 88 samples. In total, thirteen wood anatomical vessel and fiber traits were observed usinglight microscopy (LM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and linear models were used to analyse the combined effect of axial height, cambial age and their interaction. Vessel diameter differed by about one order of magnitude between early- and latewood, and increased significantly with both cambial age and axial height in latewood, while it was positively affected by cambial age and independent of height in earlywood. Vertical position further had a positive effect on earlywood vessel density, and negative effects on fibre wall thickness, wall thickness to diameter ratio and length. Cambial age had positive effects on the pit membrane diameter and vessel element length, while the annual diameter growth decreased with both cambial age and axial position. In contrast, early- and latewood fiber diameter were unaffected by both cambial age and axial height. We further observed an increasing amount of tyloses from sapwood to heartwood, accompanied by an increase of warty layers and amorphous deposits on cell walls, bordered pit membranes and pit apertures. This study highlights the significant effects of cambial age and vertical position on xylem anatomical traits, and confirms earlier work that cautions to take into account xylem spatial position when interpreting wood anatomical structures, and thus, xylem hydraulic functioning.
Animal models mimicking human diseases have been used extensively to study the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases and the efficacy of potential therapeutics. They are, however, limited with regard to their similarity to the human disease and cannot be used if the antagonist and its cognate receptor require high similarity in structure or binding. Here, we examine the induction of oxazolone-mediated features of atopic dermatitis (AD) in NOD-scid IL2R \(γ^{null}\) mice engrafted with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). The mice developed the same symptoms as immunocompetent BALB/c mice. Histological alterations induced by oxazolone were characterized by keratosis, epithelial hyperplasia and influx of inflammatory cells into the dermis and epidermis. The cellular infiltrate was identified as human leukocytes, with T cells being the major constituent. In addition, oxazolone increased human serum IgE levels. The response, however, required the engraftment of PBMC derived from patients suffering from AD, which suggests that this model reflects the immunological status of the donor. Taken together, the model described here has the potential to evaluate the efficacy of therapeutics targeting human lymphocytes in vivo and, in addition, might be developed further to elucidate molecular mechanisms inducing and sustaining flares of the disease.
Animal models mimicking human diseases have been used extensively to study the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases and the efficacy of potential therapeutics. They are, however, limited with regard to their similarity to the human disease and cannot be used if the antagonist and its cognate receptor require high similarity in structure or binding. Here, we examine the induction of oxazolone-mediated features of atopic dermatitis (AD) in NOD-scid IL2Rγnull mice engrafted with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). The mice developed the same symptoms as immunocompetent BALB/c mice. Histological alterations induced by oxazolone were characterized by keratosis, epithelial hyperplasia and influx of inflammatory cells into the dermis and epidermis. The cellular infiltrate was identified as human leukocytes, with T cells being the major constituent. In addition, oxazolone increased human serum IgE levels. The response, however, required the engraftment of PBMC derived from patients suffering from AD, which suggests that this model reflects the immunological status of the donor. Taken together, the model described here has the potential to evaluate the efficacy of therapeutics targeting human lymphocytes in vivo and, in addition, might be developed further to elucidate molecular mechanisms inducing and sustaining flares of the disease.
The plant hormone jasmonoyl-isoleucine (JA-Ile) is an important regulator of plant growth and defense in response to various biotic and abiotic stress cues. Under our experimental conditions, JA-Ile levels increased approximately seven-fold in NaCl-treated Arabidopsis thaliana roots. Although these levels were around 1000-fold lower than in wounded leaves, genes of the JA-Ile signaling pathway were induced by a factor of 100 or more. Induction was severely compromised in plants lacking the JA-Ile receptor CORONATINE INSENSITIVE 1 or enzymes required for JA-Ile biosynthesis. To explain efficient gene expression at very low JA-Ile levels, we hypothesized that salt-induced expression of the JA/JA-Ile transporter JAT1/AtABCG16 would lead to increased nuclear levels of JA-Ile. However, mutant plants with different jat1 alleles were similar to wild-type ones with respect to salt-induced gene expression. The mechanism that allows COI1-dependent gene expression at very low JA-Ile levels remains to be elucidated.
Plants exposed to herbivory may defend themselves by attracting the “enemies of their enemies”, a phenomenon called induced indirect defense (IID). In this process, the de novo production and emission of volatile organic compounds (VOC) by the affected plant is activated via a jasmonic acid (JA) dependent signaling cascade. VOC can be very specific for the inducing herbivore as well as for the emitting plant. Carnivores as predatory mites and parasitoid wasps use these substances as prey- or host-finding cues. If the herbivore is parasitized successfully, its development is slowed and thus the damage of the plant is decreased. Additional abiotic stress may modulate the plant’s ability to produce and/or emit herbivore induced VOC. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation can have multiple physiological effects on plants, amongst others the activation of the expression of genes that are also activated during anti-herbivore defense. To investigate UV effects, foils with different UV transmittance were used to manipulate ambient solar radiation. One foil was permeable for the whole solar spectrum including UV radiation whereas the other excluded radiation below a wavelength of 400 nm. Soybean exposed to UV increased concentrations of isorhamnetin- and quercetin-based flavonoids as effective photo-protective compounds in the leaves and showed a reduced growth compared to plants exposed to ambient radiation lacking UV. The altered chemical composition of the leaves had no effect on food choice and performance of herbivorous Spodoptera frugiperda larvae. Photo-protection by flavonoids seems to be efficient to prevent further UV effects on IID as plants of both treatments emitted the same blend of induced VOC and hence females of the parasitoid Cotesia marginiventris did not prefer plants from on of the treatments in the olfactometer. Nitrogen is one important macronutrient for all trophic levels and thus deficiency of this nutrient was expected to affect IID of soybean profoundly. To manipulate N availability for soybean plants hydroponic culture was used. One treatment was cultured in a standard hydroponic solution whereas in the N deficiency treatment in the solution all salts containing N were replaced with N-free salts. In N deficient plants root biomass was increased to allow the plant to forage more efficiently for the nutrient. Despite this morphological adaptation, photosynthetic efficiency as well as leaf N and soluble protein content were reduced significantly in N deficient soybean. The N deficiency was passed on to the third trophic level as herbivores fed with the affected leaves had a reduced body N content on her part and showed a decreased growth but no feeding preference for the superior food. Parasitoids reared in such N deficient herbivores had significant lower pupal weight compared to parasitoids reared in hosts fed with fully fertilized soybean. N deficient plants emitted a quantitatively altered herbivore induced blend. The two terpenes β-Bergamotene and (E,E)-α-Farnesene were emitted in higher amounts whereas (Z)-3-Hexenyl-α-methylbutyrate was emitted in significantly lower amount. Despite this quantitatively modified VOC blend the parasitoids host-searching behavior was not affected. Heavy metals (HM) are proposed to affect various biochemical pathways in plants including defense pathways by production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the tissue. The ROS on its part may affect production and release of endogenous JA, an important messenger in defense signaling. In this study maize plants were grown hydroponically and exposed to different increased concentrations of copper and cadmium. Maize seems to be able to exclude the excess HM from the leaves because the HM were found mainly in the roots and only to a minor degree in the shoots of the plants. Despite this exclusion the HM significantly affected uptake of other metal ions into the plant. The excess of the HM in combination with the attenuated uptake of other ions led to a reduced growth of roots and shoots as well as to reduced photosynthetic efficiency. Thus the nutritional value of the plants for the herbivore was lowered either by direct toxic effects of the HM or indirectly by altering plant chemical composition. S. frugiperda larvae fed with leaves exposed to high HM concentrations showed a significantly reduced growth but they did prefer neither control nor HM treated plants in a food-choice assay. Cu had a transient priming effect on JA as pre-exposure to a high excess of Cu led to higher amounts of herbivore induced JA compared to control plants exposed only to standard concentration of Cu. As anticipated the increased JA was followed by an increase in herbivore induced VOC in high-Cu treated plants caused by a increase of the green leaf volatiles (E)-3-Hexenal, (Z)-3-Hexenol and (Z)-3-Hexenylacetat and the terpenes Linalool, (E)-α-Bergamotene, (E)-β-Farnesene, and β-Sesquiphellandrene. Despite these profound changes in herbivore induced VOC the parasitoids host searching behavior was not affected. As described, the abiotic stresses UV, N deficiency and excess HM affected the morphology and physiology of soybean and maize, the performance of the herbivore S. frugiperda and even the performance of the parasitoid C. marginiventris. However the host searching behavior of the parasitoid was not affected even if the herbivore induced VOC blend was altered. Thus parasitoids seem to be a very reliable defender for plants and IID a very robust way of herbivore defense.
Background
While leaves are far more accessible for analysing plant defences, roots are hidden in the soil, leading to difficulties in studying soil-borne interactions. Inoculation strategies for infecting model plants with model root pathogens are described in the literature, but it remains demanding to obtain a methodological overview. To address this challenge, this study uses the model root pathogen Verticillium longisporum on Arabidopsis thaliana host plants and provides recommendations for selecting appropriate infection systems to investigate how plants cope with root pathogens.
Results
A novel root infection system is introduced, while two existing ones are precisely described and optimized. Step-by-step protocols are presented and accompanied by pathogenicity tests, transcriptional analyses of indole-glucosinolate marker genes and independent confirmations using reporter constructs. Advantages and disadvantages of each infection system are assessed. Overall, the results validate the importance of indole-glucosinolates as secondary metabolites that limit the Verticillium propagation in its host plant.
Conclusion
Detailed assistances on studying host defence strategies and responses against V. longisporum is provided. Furthermore, other soil-borne microorganisms (e.g., V. dahliae) or model plants, such as economically important oilseed rape and tomato, can be introduced in the infection systems described. Hence, these proven manuals can support finding a root infection system for your specific research questions to further decipher root-microbe interactions.
In vitro rearing of honeybee larvae is an established method that enables exact control and monitoring of developmental factors and allows controlled application of pesticides or pathogens. However, only a few studies have investigated how the rearing method itself affects the behavior of the resulting adult honeybees. We raised honeybees in vitro according to a standardized protocol: marking the emerging honeybees individually and inserting them into established colonies. Subsequently, we investigated the behavioral performance of nurse bees and foragers and quantified the physiological factors underlying the social organization. Adult honeybees raised in vitro differed from naturally reared honeybees in their probability of performing social tasks. Further, in vitro-reared bees foraged for a shorter duration in their life and performed fewer foraging trips. Nursing behavior appeared to be unaffected by rearing condition. Weight was also unaffected by rearing condition. Interestingly, juvenile hormone titers, which normally increase strongly around the time when a honeybee becomes a forager, were significantly lower in three- and four-week-old in vitro bees. The effects of the rearing environment on individual sucrose responsiveness and lipid levels were rather minor. These data suggest that larval rearing conditions can affect the task performance and physiology of adult bees despite equal weight, pointing to an important role of the colony environment for these factors. Our observations of behavior and metabolic pathways offer important novel insight into how the rearing environment affects adult honeybees.
An antibody against the NDH-K subunit of the NAD(P)H-dehydrogenase from the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 was used to isolate a subcomplex ofthe enzyme from Triton X-lOO solubilized total membranes by immunoaffinity chromatography. The isolated subcomplex consisted of seven major polypeptides with molecular masses of 43, 27, 24, 21, 18, 14 and 7 kDa. The amino-terminal amino acid sequences of the polypeptides were determined. By comparing the sequences with the amino acid sequences deduced from DNA. three proteins were identified as NDH-H (43 kDa). NDH-K (27 kDa) and NDH-J (24 kDa). A fourth subunit (NDH-J, 21 kDa) was identified by Western blot analysis with an NDH-J antibody.
Bariatric operations in obese patients with type 2 diabetes often improve diabetes before weight loss is observed. In patients mainly Roux-en-Y-gastric bypass with partial stomach resection is performed. Duodenojejunal bypass (DJB) and ileal interposition (IIP) are employed in animal experiments. Due to increased glucose exposition of L-cells located in distal ileum, all bariatric surgery procedures lead to higher secretion of antidiabetic glucagon like peptide-1 (GLP-1) after glucose gavage. After DJB also downregulation of Na\(^{+}\)-D-glucose cotransporter SGLT1 was observed. This suggested a direct contribution of decreased glucose absorption to the antidiabetic effect of bariatric surgery. To investigate whether glucose absorption is also decreased after IIP, we induced diabetes with decreased glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in male rats and investigated effects of IIP on diabetes and SGLT1. After IIP, we observed weight-independent improvement of glucose tolerance, increased insulin sensitivity, and increased plasma GLP-1 after glucose gavage. The interposed ileum was increased in diameter and showed increased length of villi, hyperplasia of the epithelial layer, and increased number of L-cells. The amount of SGLT1-mediated glucose uptake in interposed ileum was increased 2-fold reaching the same level as in jejunum. Thus, improvement of glycemic control by bariatric surgery does not require decreased glucose absorption.
In this paper, we report new protease inhibitory activity of plakortide E towards cathepsins and cathepsin-like parasitic proteases. We further report on its anti-parasitic activity against Trypanosoma brucei with an IC50 value of 5 mu M and without cytotoxic effects against J774.1 macrophages at 100 mu M concentration. Plakortide E was isolated from the sponge Plakortis halichondroides using enzyme assay-guided fractionation and identified by NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. Furthermore, enzyme kinetic studies confirmed plakortide E as a non-competitive, slowly-binding, reversible inhibitor of rhodesain.
The zona pellucida (ZP) domain is present in extracellular proteins such as the zona pellucida proteins and tectorins and participates in the formation of polymeric protein networks. However, the ZP domain also occurs in the cytokine signaling co-receptor transforming growth factor beta (TGF-\(\beta\)) receptor type 3 (TGFR-3, also known as betaglycan) where it contributes to cytokine ligand recognition. Currently it is unclear how the ZP domain architecture enables this dual functionality. Here, we identify a novel major TGF-beta-binding site in the FG loop of the C-terminal subdomain of the murine TGFR-3 ZP domain (ZP-C) using protein crystallography, limited proteolysis experiments, surface plasmon resonance measurements and synthetic peptides. In the murine 2.7 angstrom crystal structure that we are presenting here, the FG-loop is disordered, however, well-ordered in a recently reported homologous rat ZP-C structure. Surprisingly, the adjacent external hydrophobic patch (EHP) segment is registered differently in the rat and murine structures suggesting that this segment only loosely associates with the remaining ZP-C fold. Such a flexible and temporarily-modulated association of the EHP segment with the ZP domain has been proposed to control the polymerization of ZP domain-containing proteins. Our findings suggest that this flexibility also extends to the ZP domain of TGFR-3 and might facilitate co-receptor ligand interaction and presentation via the adjacent FG-loop. This hints that a similar C-terminal region of the ZP domain architecture possibly regulates both the polymerization of extracellular matrix proteins and cytokine ligand recognition of TGFR-3.
The negative impact of juvenile undernourishment on adult behavior has been well reported for vertebrates, but relatively little is known about invertebrates. In honeybees, nutrition has long been known to affect task performance and timing of behavioral transitions. Whether and how a dietary restriction during larval development affects the task performance of adult honeybees is largely unknown. We raised honeybees in-vitro, varying the amount of a standardized diet (150 µl, 160 µl, 180 µl in total). Emerging adults were marked and inserted into established colonies. Behavioral performance of nurse bees and foragers was investigated and physiological factors known to be involved in the regulation of social organization were quantified. Surprisingly, adult honeybees raised under different feeding regimes did not differ in any of the behaviors observed. No differences were observed in physiological parameters apart from weight. Honeybees were lighter when undernourished (150 µl), while they were heavier under the overfed treatment (180 µl) compared to the control group raised under a normal diet (160 µl). These data suggest that dietary restrictions during larval development do not affect task performance or physiology in this social insect despite producing clear effects on adult weight. We speculate that possible effects of larval undernourishment might be compensated during the early period of adult life.
Xylem hydraulic safety and efficiency are key traits determining tree fitness in a warmer and drier world. While numerous plant hydraulic studies have focused on branches, our understanding of root hydraulic functioning remains limited, although roots control water uptake, influence stomatal regulation and have commonly been considered as the most vulnerable organ along the hydraulic pathway.
We investigated 11 traits related to xylem safety and efficiency along the hydraulic pathway in four temperate broad-leaved tree species.
Continuous vessel tapering from coarse roots to stems and branches caused considerable reduction in hydraulic efficiency. Wood density was always lowest in roots, but did not decline linearly along the flow path. In contrast, xylem embolism resistance (P50) did not differ significantly between roots and branches, except for one species. The limited variation in xylem safety between organs did not adequately reflect the corresponding reductions in vessel diameter (by ~70%) and hydraulic efficiency (by ~85%). Although we did not observe any trade-off between xylem safety and specific conductivity, vessel diameter, vessel lumen fraction and wood density were related to embolism resistance, both across and partly within organs.
We conclude that coarse roots are not highly vulnerable to xylem embolism as commonly believed, indicating that hydraulic failure during soil drying might be restricted to fine roots.
Malvaviscus arboreus Cav. is a medicinal plant belonging to family Malvaceae with both ethnomedical and culinary value; however, its phytochemical and biological profiles have been scarcely studied. Accordingly, this work was designed to explore the chemical composition and the hepatoprotective potential of M. arboreus against carbon tetrachloride (CCl\(_4\))-induced hepatotoxicity. The total extract of the aerial parts and its derived fractions (petroleum ether, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, and aqueous) were orally administered to rats for six consecutive days, followed by injection of CCl\(_4\) (1:1 v/v, in olive oil, 1.5 ml/kg, i.p.) on the next day. Results showed that the ethyl acetate and dichloromethane fractions significantly alleviated liver injury in rats as indicated by the reduced levels of alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), total bilirubin (TB), and malondialdehyde (MDA), along with enhancement of the total antioxidant capacities of their livers, with the maximum effects were recorded by the ethyl acetate fraction. Moreover, the protective actions of both fractions were comparable to those of silymarin (100 mg/kg), and have been also substantiated by histopathological evaluations. On the other hand, liquid chromatography-high resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (LC‒HR‒ESI‒MS) metabolomic profiling of the crude extract of M. arboreus aerial parts showed the presence of a variety of phytochemicals, mostly phenolics, whereas the detailed chemical analysis of the most active fraction (i.e. ethyl acetate) resulted in the isolation and identification of six compounds for the first time in the genus, comprising four phenolic acids; β-resorcylic, caffeic, protocatechuic, and 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acids, in addition to two flavonoids; trifolin and astragalin. Such phenolic principles, together with their probable synergistic antioxidant and liver-protecting properties, seem to contribute to the observed hepatoprotective potential of M. arboreus.
Blumeria graminis, the obligate biotrophic grass powdery mildew, is a highly pathogenic fungus capable of inflicting foliar diseases and of causing severe yield losses. There is asexual and sexual propagation in the life cycle of B. graminis. In the epidemiological processes of this pathogen, both types of spores - asexual conidia and sexual ascospores – are crucial.
Conidia of B. graminis are demonstrated to perceive cuticular very-long-chain aldehydes as molecular signal substances notably promoting germination and differentiation of the infection structure (the appressorium) – the prepenetration processes – in a concentration- and chain-length-dependent manner. Conidial germination and appressorium formation are known to be dramatically impeded by the presence of free water on the host surface. However, sexually formed ascospores are reported to easily germinate immersed in water. There are abundant assays on conidial prepenetration processes. However, with respect to the stimulating effects of very-long-chain aldehydes and to the influence of the presence of free water, ascosporic prepenetration processes are still obscure.
In order to study the effects of very-long-chain aldehydes on the ascosporic prepenetration processes of wheat powdery mildew fungus B. graminis f. sp. tritici, Formvar®-based in vitro systems were applied to exclude the secondary host effects (such as host resistance) and to reproducibly provide homogeneous hydrophobic substratum surfaces. By the presence of even-numbered very-long-chain aldehydes (C22 - C30), the appressorium formation of the ascospores was notably triggered in a chain-length dependent manner. N-octacosanal (C28) was the most inducing aldehyde tested. Unlike conidia, ascospores could easily differentiate immersed in water and showed a more variable differentiation pattern even with a single germ tube differentiating an appressorium.
To evaluate the alternative management against barley powdery mildew fungus Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei, the suppressing effects of UV-C irradiation on the developmental processes of conidia on artificial surfaces (in vitro) and on host leaf surfaces (in vivo) were assayed. In vitro and in vivo, a single dose of 100 J m-2 UV-C was adequate to decrease conidial germination to < 20 % and to reduce appressorium formation to values < 5 %. UV-C irradiation negatively affected colony pustule size and vegetative propagation. Under photoperiodic conditions of 2h light/16h dark, 6h dark/12h light or 6h dark/18h light, UV-C-treated conidia showed photoreactivation (photo-recovery). White light-mediated photoreactivation was most effective immediately after UV-C irradiation, suggesting that a prolonged phase of darkness after UV-C application increased the efficacy of management against B. graminis. UV-C irradiation increased transcript levels of three putative photolyase genes in B. graminis, indicating those were probably involved in photoreactivation processes. However, mere white light or blue light (wavelength peak, 475 nm) could not induce the up-regulation of these genes.
To determine whether visible light directly impacted the prepenetration and penetration processes of this powdery mildew pathogen, conidia of Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei and Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici were inoculated onto artificial surfaces and on host leaf surfaces. Samples were analyzed after incubation periods under light conditions (white light intensity and spectral quality). Increasing white light intensities directly impaired conidial prepenetration processes in vitro but not in vivo. Applying an agar layer under the wax membrane compensated for conidial water loss as a consequence of high white light irradiation. Light stimulated in vitro and in vivo the appressorium elongation of B. graminis in a wavelength-dependent manner. Red light was more effective to trigger the elongation of appressorium than blue light or green light assayed.
Taken together, the findings of this study demonstrate that 1) a host surface recognition principle based on cuticular very-long-chain aldehydes is a common feature of B. graminis f. sp. tritici ascospores and conidia; 2) the transcriptional changes of three putative photolyase genes in B. graminis are mediated in a UV-C-dependent manner; 3) light directly affected the (pre)penetration processes of B. graminis.
The light-gated cation channel Channelrhodopsin-2 was discovered and characterized in 2003. Already in 2005/2006 five independent groups demonstrated that heterologous expression of Channelrhodopsin-2 is a highly useful and simply applicable method for depolarizing and thereby activating nerve cells. The application of Channelrhodopsin-2 revolutionized neuroscience research and the method was then called optogenetics. In recent years more and more light-sensitive proteins were successfully introduced as “optogenetic tools”, not only in neuroscience. Optogenetic tools for neuronal excitation are well developed with many different cation-conducting wildtype and mutated channelrhodopsins, whereas for inhibition of neurons in the beginning (2007) only hyperpolarizing ion pumps were available. The later discovered light-activated anion channels (anion channelrhodopsins) can be useful hyperpolarizers, but only at low cytoplasmic anion concentration. For this thesis, I optimized CsR, a proton-pumping rhodopsin from Coccomyxa subellipsoidea, which naturally shows a robust expression in Xenopus laevis oocytes and plant leaves. I improved the expression and therefore the photocurrent of CsR about two-fold by N-terminal modification to the improved version CsR2.0, without altering the proton pump function and the action spectrum. A light pulse hyperpolarised the mesophyll cells of CsR2.0-expressing transgenic tobacco plants (N. tabacum) by up to 20 mV from the resting membrane potential of -150 to -200 mV. The robust heterologous expression makes CsR2.0 a promising optogenetic tool for hyperpolarization in other organisms as well. A single R83H point-mutation converted CsR2.0 into a light-activated (passive) proton channel with a reversal potential close to the Nernst potential for intra-/extra-cellular H+ concentration. This light-gated proton channel is expected to become a further useful optogenetic tool, e.g. for analysis of pH-regulation in cells or the intercellular space. Ion pumps as optogenetic tools require high expression levels and high light intensity for efficient pump currents, whereas long-term illumination may cause unwanted heating effects. Although anion channelrhodopsins are effective hyperpolarizing tools in some cases, their effect on neuronal activity is dependent on the cytoplasmic chloride concentration which can vary among neurons. In nerve cells, increased conductance for potassium terminates the action potential and K+ conductance underlies the resting membrane potential in excitable cells. Therefore, several groups attempted to synthesize artificial light-gated potassium channels but 2 all of these published innovations showed serious drawbacks, ranging from poor expression over lacking reversibility to poor temporal precision. A highly potassium selective light-sensitive silencer of action potentials is needed. To achieve this, I engineered a light-activated potassium channel by the genetic fusion of a photoactivated adenylyl cyclase, bPAC, and a cAMP-gated potassium channel, SthK. Illumination activates bPAC to produce cAMP and the elevated cAMP level opens SthK. The slow diffusion and degradation of cAMP makes this construct a very light-sensitive, long-lasting inhibitor. I have successfully developed four variants with EC50 to cAMP ranging from 7 over 10, 21, to 29 μM. Together with the original fusion construct (EC50 to cAMP is 3 μm), there are five different light- (or cAMP-) sensitive potassium channels for researchersto choose, depending on their cell type and light intensity needs.
Purpose:
The biologic relevance of human connective tissue growth factor (hCTGF) for primary human tenon fibroblasts (HTFs) was investigated by RNA expression profiling using affymetrix (TM) oligonucleotide array technology to identify genes that are regulated by hCTGF.
Methods:
Recombinant hCTGF was expressed in HEK293T cells and purified by affinity and gel chromatography. Specificity and biologic activity of hCTGF was confirmed by biosensor interaction analysis and proliferation assays. For RNA expression profiling HTFs were stimulated with hCTGF for 48h and analyzed using affymetrix (TM) oligonucleotide array technology. Results were validated by real time RT-PCR.
Results:
hCTGF induces various groups of genes responsible for a wound healing and inflammatory response in HTFs. A new subset of CTGF inducible inflammatory genes was discovered (e.g., chemokine [C-X-C motif] ligand 1 [CXCL1], chemokine [C-X-C motif] ligand 6 [CXCL6], interleukin 6 [IL6], and interleukin 8 [IL8]). We also identified genes that can transmit the known biologic functions initiated by CTGF such as proliferation and extracellular matrix remodelling. Of special interest is a group of genes, e.g., osteoglycin (OGN) and osteomodulin (OMD), which are known to play a key role in osteoblast biology.
Conclusions:
This study specifies the important role of hCTGF for primary tenon fibroblast function. The RNA expression profile yields new insights into the relevance of hCTGF in influencing biologic processes like wound healing, inflammation, proliferation, and extracellular matrix remodelling in vitro via transcriptional regulation of specific genes. The results suggest that CTGF potentially acts as a modulating factor in inflammatory and wound healing response in fibroblasts of the human eye.
Background
Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-2 and growth and differentiation factor (GDF)-5 are two related transforming growth factor (TGF)-β family members with important functions in embryonic development and tissue homeostasis. BMP-2 is best known for its osteoinductive properties whereas GDF-5—as evident from its alternative name, cartilage derived morphogenetic protein 1—plays an important role in the formation of cartilage. In spite of these differences both factors signal by binding to the same subset of BMP receptors, raising the question how these different functionalities are generated. The largest difference in receptor binding is observed in the interaction with the type I receptor BMPR-IA. GDF-5, in contrast to BMP-2, shows preferential binding to the isoform BMPR-IB, which is abrogated by a single amino acid (A57R) substitution. The resulting variant, GDF-5 R57A, represents a “BMP-2 mimic” with respect to BMP receptor binding. In this study we thus wanted to analyze whether the two growth factors can induce distinct signals via an identically composed receptor.
Results
Unexpectedly and dependent on the cellular context, GDF-5 R57A showed clear differences in its activity compared to BMP-2. In ATDC-5 cells, both ligands induced alkaline phosphatase (ALP) expression with similar potency. But in C2C12 cells, the BMP-2 mimic GDF-5 R57A (and also wild-type GDF-5) clearly antagonized BMP-2-mediated ALP expression, despite signaling in both cell lines occurring solely via BMPR-IA. The BMP-2- antagonizing properties of GDF-5 and GDF-5 R57A could also be observed in vivo when implanting BMP-2 and either one of the two GDF-5 ligands simultaneously at heterotopic sites.
Conclusions
Although comparison of the crystal structures of the GDF-5 R57A:BMPR-IAEC- and BMP-2:BMPR-IAEC complex revealed small ligand-specific differences, these cannot account for the different signaling characteristics because the complexes seem identical in both differently reacting cell lines. We thus predict an additional component, most likely a not yet identified GDF-5-specific co-receptor, which alters the output of the signaling complexes. Hence the presence or absence of this component then switches GDF-5′s signaling capabilities to act either similar to BMP-2 or as a BMP-2 antagonist. These findings might shed new light on the role of GDF-5, e.g., in cartilage maintenance and/or limb development in that it might act as an inhibitor of signaling events initiated by other BMPs.
Background: Plants have evolved an astonishing array of survival strategies. To defend against insects, for example, damaged plants emit volatile organic compounds that attract the herbivore’s natural enemies. So far, plant volatile responses have been studied extensively in conjunction with leaf chewing and sap sucking insects, yet little is known about the relationship between plant volatiles and gall-inducers, the most sophisticated herbivores. Here we describe a new role for volatiles as gall-insects were found to benefit from this plant defence.
Results: Chemical analyses of galls triggered by the gregarious aphid Slavum wertheimae on wild pistachio trees showed that these structures contained and emitted considerably higher quantities of plant terpenes than neighbouring leaves and fruits. Behavioural assays using goats as a generalist herbivore confirmed that the accumulated terpenes acted as olfactory signals and feeding deterrents, thus enabling the gall-inducers to escape from inadvertent predation by mammals.
Conclusions: Increased emission of plant volatiles in response to insect activity is commonly looked upon as a “cry for help” by the plant to attract the insect’s natural enemies. In contrast, we show that such volatiles can serve as a first line of insect defences that extends the ‘extended phenotype’ represented by galls, beyond physical boundaries. Our data support the Enemy hypothesis insofar that high levels of gall secondary metabolites confer protection against natural enemies.
Latrophilin, alternatively named calcium-independent receptor of α-latrotoxin (CIRL), resembles a prototype of the adhesion class G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). Initially identified as a high-affinity receptor for α-latrotoxin, a component of the black widow spider, latrophilins are now associated with various distinct functions, such as synaptic exocytosis, tissue polarity and fertility (Tobaben et al., 2002; Langenhan et al., 2009; Promel et al., 2012). Despite these exploratory efforts the precise subcellular localisation as well as the endogenous ligand of CIRL still remains elusive. In this work genetic experiments, imaging approaches and behavioural studies have been used to unravel the localisation and physiological function of the latrophilin homolog dCirl in Drosophila melanogaster. Containing only one latrophilin homolog together with its genetic accessibility and well-established transgenic approaches, Drosophila seemed an ideally suited model organism. The present study showed that dCirl is widely expressed in the larval central nervous system including moto- and sensory neurons. Further, this work revealed that removal of the latrophilin homolog does not greatly affect synaptic transmission but it seems that aspects of the postsynaptic structural layout are controlled by dCIRL in the fruit fly. Additionally, dCirl expression at the transcriptional level was confirmed in larval and adult chordotonal organs, specialised mechanosensors implicated in proprioception (Eberl, 1999). Expression of dCIRL at the protein level could not yet been confirmed in moto- and sensory neurons likely due to low endogenous expression. However, behavioural studies using dCirl knockout mutant larvae indicated a putative mechanosensory function of dCIRL regarding touch sensitivity and locomotion behaviour.
The second part of this thesis presents a strategy to examine interactions between several presynaptic proteins in living cells. The attempt described in this work is based on the discovery that GFP when split into two non-fluorescent fragments can form a fluorescent complex. The association of the fragments can be facilitated by fusing them to two proteins that interact with each other. Therefore, the split GFP method enables direct visualization of synaptic protein interactions in living cells. In initial experiments I could show that full length reporter protein fusions with n-Synaptobrevin (n-Syb), Synaptotagmin (Syt) and Syntaxin (Syx) allow expression in Drosophila and confirmed that fusion to either end of each synaptic protein did not impair expression or influence the viability of transgenic flies. Further, transgenes containing protein fusions of Syx, Syt, and n-Syb with split GFP fragments were established in previous studies (Gehring, 2010). The present work characterises the interaction of these protein fusions during different stages of synaptic vesicle turnover at active zones such as synaptic vesicle docking at the presynaptic membrane and vesicle fusion. These results suggest that the spGFP assay seems only partly suitable for resolving fast and transient protein-protein interactions at larval Drosophila active zones in vivo.
Sodium-glucose transporters (SGLT) belong to the solute carrier 5 family, which is characterized by sodium dependent transport of sugars and other solutes. In contrast, the human SGLT3 (hSGLT3) isoform, encoded by SLC5A4, acts as a glucose sensor that does not transport sugar but induces membrane depolarization by Na\(^{+}\) currents upon ligand binding. Whole-exome sequencing (WES) of several extended pedigrees with high density of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) identified a triplet ATG deletion in SLC5A4 leading to a single amino acid loss (ΔM500) in the hSGLT3 protein imperfectly co-segregating with the clinical phenotype of ADHD. Since mutations in homologous domains of hSGLT1 and hSGLT2 were found to affect intestinal and renal function, respectively, we analyzed the functional properties of hSGLT3[wt] and [ΔM500] by voltage clamp and current clamp recordings from cRNA-injected Xenopus laevis oocytes.
The cation conductance of hSGLT3[wt] was activated by application of glucose or the specific agonist 1-desoxynojirimycin (DNJ) as revealed by inward currents in the voltage clamp configuration and cell depolarization in the current clamp mode. Almost no currents and changes in membrane potential were observed when glucose or DNJ were applied to hSGLT3[ΔM500]-injected oocytes, demonstrating a loss of function by this amino acid deletion in hSGLT3. To monitor membrane targeting of wt and mutant hSGLT3, fusion constructs with YFP were generated, heterologously expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes and analyzed for membrane fluorescence by confocal microscopy. In comparison to hSGLT3[wt] the fluorescent signal of mutant [ΔM500] was reduced by 43% indicating that the mutant phenotype might mainly result from inaccurate membrane targeting. As revealed by homology modeling, residue M500 is located in TM11 suggesting that in addition to the core structure (TM1-TM10) of the transporter, the surrounding TMs are equally crucial for transport/sensor function.
In conclusion, our findings indicate that the deletion [ΔM500] in hSGLT3 inhibits membrane targeting and thus largely disrupts glucose-induced sodium conductance, which may, in interaction with other ADHD risk-related gene variants, influence the risk for ADHD in deletion carriers.
Activation of mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases is a common reaction of plant cells in defense-related signal transduction pathways. Since the downstream events after the activation of MAP kinases are largely unknown in plants, the role of MAP kinases in the co-ordinate regulation of defense reactions and primary carbon metabolism by stress related stimuli has been analyzed in tomato. Thus, the relationship between mitogen activated protein kinases (LpMPK2 and LpMPK3) and extracellular invertases Lin6, as the key enzyme of an apoplasmic phloem unloading pathway, has been analyzed. The results showed that the mRNAs of LpMPK3 and Lin6 are sequentially induced by the same set of stress related stimuli (E-Fol, PGA,wounding, and KCl). The induction of the Lin6 promotor, as revealed by an increase in β-glucuronidase activity after 2 hours, was dependent both on the expression and activation of LpMPK3. These data suggest that the induction of extracellular invertase Lin6 by stress related stimuli requires LpMPK3. Glucose, metabolic molecule, was shown to result in the simultaneous induction of AtMPK4 and AtMPK6 activities that could be separated by anion-exchange chromatography, and characterized by differential cross-reaction with MAP kinase antibodies. Taken together, these data suggest that the activation of MAP inases play central roles in the regulation of sugar signaling. Stomatal movement is controlled by environmental signals including light intensity,humidity and atmospheric CO2 level. In Arabidopsis, a complete MAP kinase signaling cascade regulates stomatal development and patterning. However, the movement of stomata mediated by CO2 induced signaling pathways is not fully studied in higher plants. Here, we show that elevated levels of CO2 induce rapid and transient activation of SIPK and NtMPK4. The activation of both MAP kinases may regulate the anion channel activation for stomatal movement by the elevated level CO2. Up to now, the non-antioxidant function of tocopherol is not clear in higher plant,whereas the ability of tocopherol to modulate the stress tolerance mediated by function of antioxidant has been described in numerous studies. Thus, the function of α-tocopherol in stimuli-induced signal transduction pathways mediated by MAP kinase has been analyzed in tobacco. It has been shown that the activation of MAP kinase was induced by treatment of fungal elicitor and α-tocopherol phosphate but not α-tocopherol. Interestingly, α-tocopherol showed the transient inhibitory effect on the activation of stimuli-induced MAP Kinases in BY2 cells and tobacco plants, whereas ascorbate did not inhibit the activation of MAP kinases. The inhibitory activity test indicated that current application may indirectly affect the activity of MAP kinases. These results suggest that α-tocopherol can negatively regulate stimuliinduced signal transduction pathways via inactivation of MAP kinases. The purine-analogues have been tested and reported to be specific inhibitors of protein kinases mediated by structural-based selectivity in mammalian. Here, we tested C2, N6, N9-trisubstituted purines to determine basic relationship between their chemical structure and inhibitory activity using a particular plant MAP kinase. The modification of substitution in position C2 and N9 caused the increased inhibitory activity of 6-(benzylamino) purine analogue. In addition, 6-(isopentenylamino) purine analogues suggested that addition of a methyl group to position N9 caused at least 2-fold increased inhibitory activity compared with the addition of isopropyl group.Taken together, our study suggests that the selectivity and potency of inhibitors can be improved by structure modification. In addition, we have characterized the physiological function of Arabidopsis thaliana PLAT domain protein 1 (AtPDP1) in modulating the interaction of defense pathways mediated by biotic and abiotic factors. Interestingly, overexpression of AtPDP1 resulted in increasing susceptibility of virulent pathogens and necrotrophic fungus, and developing necrosis induced by unknown biotic factors. However, these overexperssion lines showed the significantly delayed senescence and higher level of phosystem II quantum yield compared with control plants against high salt stress. Our results strongly indicate that AtPDP1 positively regulate with salt tolerance, and enhances the sensitivity to biotic stresses. We propose that the AtPDP1 might be regulated with the complex pathways of interplay among various signaling during stress adaptation.
We did not expect that research on the molecular mechanism of algal phototaxis or archaeal light‐driven ion transport might interest readers of a medical journal when we conceived and performed our experiments a decade ago. On the other hand, it did not escape our attention that channelrhodopsin is helping an ever‐increasing number of researchers to address their specific questions. For example, the channelrhodopsin approach is used to study the molecular events during the induction of synaptic plasticity or to map long‐range connections from one side of the brain to the other, and to map the spatial location of inputs on the dendritic tree of individual neurons. The current applications have been summarized in a number of recent reviews (Fenno et al, 2011; Yizhar et al, 2011; Zhang et al, 2011). Here, we give personal insight into the history of the discovery of channelrhodopsin and a biophysical perspective on this remarkable class of proteins that has been the main topic of our research since the 1990s.
Optogenetics was developed in the field of neuroscience and is most commonly using light-sensitive rhodopsins to control the neural activities. Lately, we have expanded this technique into plant science by co-expression of a chloroplast-targeted β-carotene dioxygenase and an improved anion channelrhodopsin GtACR1 from the green alga Guillardia theta. The growth of Nicotiana tabacum pollen tube can then be manipulated by localized green light illumination. To extend the application of analogous optogenetic tools in the pollen tube system, we engineered another two ACRs, GtACR2, and ZipACR, which have different action spectra, light sensitivity and kinetic features, and characterized them in Xenopus laevis oocytes, Nicotiana benthamiana leaves and N. tabacum pollen tubes. We found that the similar molecular engineering method used to improve GtACR1 also enhanced GtACR2 and ZipACR performance in Xenopus laevis oocytes. The ZipACR1 performed in N. benthamiana mesophyll cells and N. tabacum pollen tubes with faster kinetics and reduced light sensitivity, allowing for optogenetic control of anion fluxes with better temporal resolution. The reduced light sensitivity would potentially facilitate future application in plants, grown under low ambient white light, combined with an optogenetic manipulation triggered by stronger green light.
Background:
Similar to tumor cells, activated T-lymphocytes generate ATP mainly by glycolytic degradation of glucose. Lymphocyte glucose uptake involves non-concentrative glucose carriers of the GLUT family. In contrast to GLUT isoforms, Na+-coupled glucose-carrier SGLT1 accumulates glucose against glucose gradients and is effective at low extracellular glucose concentrations. The present study explored expression and regulation of SGLT1 in activated murine splenic cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) and human Jurkat T cells.
Methods:
FACS analysis, immunofluorescence, confocal microscopy, chemiluminescence and Western blotting were employed to estimate SGLT1 expression, function and regulation in lymphocytes, as well as dual electrode voltage clamp in SGLT1 ± JAK3 expressing Xenopus oocytes to quantify the effect of janus kinase3 (JAK3) on SGLT1 function.
Results:
SGLT1 is expressed in murine CTLs and also in human Jurkat T cells. 2-(N-(7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl)amino)-2-deoxyglucose uptake was significantly decreased by SGLT1-blocker phloridzin (0.2 mM) and by pharmacological inhibition of JAK3 with WHI-P131 (156 µM), WHI-P154 (11.2 µM) and JAK3 inhibitor VI (0.5 µM). Electrogenic glucose transport (Iglucose) in Xenopus oocytes expressing human SGLT1 was increased by additional expression of human wild type JAK3, active A568VJAK3 but not inactive K851AJAK3. Coexpression of JAK3 enhanced the maximal transport rate without significantly modifying affinity of the carrier. Iglucose in SGLT1+JAK3 expressing oocytes was significantly decreased by WHI-P154 (11.2 µM). JAK3 increased the SGLT1 protein abundance in the cell membrane. Inhibition of carrier insertion by brefeldin A (5 µM) in SGLT1+JAK3 expressing oocytes resulted in a decline of Iglucose, which was similar in presence and absence of JAK3.
Conclusions:
SGLT1 is expressed in murine cytotoxic T cells and human Jurkat T cells and significantly contributes to glucose uptake in those cells post activation. JAK3 up-regulates SGLT1 activity by increasing the carrier protein abundance in the cell membrane, an effect enforcing cellular glucose uptake into activated lymphocytes and thus contributing to the immune response.
The presented work shows the analysis of the correlation between the spatial and temporal expression pattern of NtAQP1 and its function in water relation in planta. In situ immunological studies indicated NtAQP1-protein accumulation in the root exodermis and endodermis, in the cortex, close to vascular bundles, in the xylem parenchyma and in cells of the stomatal cavities. The aquaporin was also found to be abundant in longitudinal cell-rows in the petioles. Expression studies with generated transgenic plants (Ntaqp1-promoter::gus or luc) confirmed the Ntaqp1 accumulation in the root, stem and petioles but also revealed further localization in pollen grains, adventitious roots and leaf glandular hairs. Ntaqp1-expression was induced during growth processes, like stem bending after gravistimulation or photostimulation, seed germination and hypocotyl elongation as well as during the comparatively fast circadian leaf movement. The expression was further stimulated by phytohormones, especially gibberellic acid (GA) and osmotic stress. Further analysis displayed a diurnal and even circadian expression of Ntaqp1 in roots and petioles. The functional analysis of the aquaporin was accomplished by reverse genetics and biophysical studies. The antisense technique was used to reduce NtAQP1-expression in tobacco plants. The antisense (AS) plants exhibited a severe reduction of Ntaqp1-mRNA, less reduction of the highly homologous NtPIP1a RNA and no effect on expression of other aquaporin family genes (PIP2, TIP). The function of NtAQP1 at the cellular level was investigated by a newly developed experimental setup to record the osmotically induced increase in protoplast volume. The reduction of NtAQP1 by the antisense expression decreased the overall cellular waterpermeability Pos for more than 50 %. Function of NtAQP1 at the whole plant level was e.g. measured by the “high-pressure flow meter method”. Those measurements revealed that the root hydraulic conductivity per unit root surface area (KRA) of roots from the AS-lines was reduced by more than 50 %. KRA displayed a strong diurnal and circadian variation with a maximum in the middle of the light period, similar to the expression pattern of Ntaqp1 in roots. Gas exchange-, stem (Ystem) and leaf (Yleaf) water potential measurement gave dissimilar values in AS and control plants under well-watered conditions. Under a water-limiting environment the Y of AS-plants remained at more negative water values, even though a further decrease in transpiration of AS-plants was detected. Quantitative analysis displayed a much stronger wilting reaction in the AS than in the control plants. Quantitative studies of the leaf movement in AS compared to control plants exhibited a dramatic reduction in velocity and also in the extent of the process. The following conclusions can be drawn. NtAQP1 was expressed at sites of anticipated high water fluxes from and to the apoplast or symplast. Additionally, the specific distribution pattern and temporal expression of NtAQP1 in petioles and the bending stem strongly indicate a role in transcellular movement of water. The reduction of NtAQP1 by the antisense expression decreased the overall cellular Pos. Conclusively, NtAQP1-function increases membrane water permeability of tobacco root protoplasts. The decrease of the specific root hydraulic conductivity (KRA) was in the same order of magnitude as the mean cellular water permeability reduction, indicating that aquaporin expression is essential in maintaining a natural root hydraulic conductance. Reduction of KRA in AS plants might be the first definitive proof that the pathway of water uptake from the root surface to the xylem involves passage across membranes. The absence of NtAQP1 resulted in a water stress signal, causing a certain stomatal closure. NtAQP1 seems to contribute to water stress avoidance in tobacco. NtAQP1 plays an essential role in fast plant movements and transcellular water shift.
Sponges (phylum Porifera) are evolutionary ancient, sessile filter-feeders that harbor a largely diverse microbial community within their internal mesohyl matrix. Throughout this thesis project, I aimed at exploring the adaptations of these symbionts to life within their sponge host by sequencing and analyzing the genomes of a variety of bacteria from the microbiome of the Mediterranean sponge Aplysina aerophoba. Employed methods were fluorescence-activated cell sorting with subsequent multiple displacement amplification and single-cell / ‘mini-metagenome’ sequencing, and metagenomic sequencing followed by differential coverage binning. These two main approaches both aimed at obtaining genome sequences of bacterial symbionts of A. aerophoba, that were then compared to each other and to references from other environments, to gain information on adaptations to the host sponge environment and on possible interactions with the host and within the microbial community.
Cyanobacteria are frequent members of the sponge microbial community. My ‘mini-metagenome’ sequencing project delivered three draft genomes of “Candidatus Synechococcus spongiarum,” the cyanobacterial symbiont of A. aerophoba and many more sponges inhabiting the photic zone. The most complete of these genomes was compared to other clades of this symbiont and to closely related free-living cyanobacterial references in a collaborative project published in Burgsdorf I*, Slaby BM* et al. (2015; *shared first authorship). Although the four clades of “Ca. Synechococcus spongiarum” from the four sponge species A. aerophoba, Ircinia variabilis, Theonella swinhoei, and Carteriospongia foliascens were approximately 99% identical on the level of 16S rRNA gene sequences, they greatly differed on the genomic level. Not only the genome sizes were different from clade to clade, but also the gene content and a number of features including proteins containing the eukaryotic-type domains leucine-rich repeats or tetratricopeptide repeats. On the other hand, the four clades shared a number of features such as ankyrin repeat domain-containing proteins that seemed to be conserved also among other microbial phyla in different sponge hosts and from different geographic locations. A possible novel mechanism for host phagocytosis evasion and phage resistance by means of an altered O antigen of the lipopolysaccharide was identified.
To test previous hypotheses on adaptations of sponge-associated bacteria on a broader spectrum of the microbiome of A. aerophoba while also taking a step forward in methodology, I developed a bioinformatic pipeline to combine metagenomic Illumina short-read sequencing data with PacBio long-read data. At the beginning of this project, no pipelines to combine short-read and long-read data for metagenomics were published, and at time of writing, there are still no projects published with a comparable aim of un-targeted assembly, binning and analysis of a metagenome. I tried a variety of assembly programs and settings on a simulated test dataset reflecting the properties of the real metagenomic data. The developed assembly pipeline improved not only the overall assembly statistics, but also the quality of the binned genomes, which was evaluated by comparison to the originally published genome assemblies.
The microbiome of A. aerophoba was studied from various angles in the recent years, but only genomes of the candidate phylum Poribacteria and the cyanobacterial sequences from my above-described project have been published to date. By applying my newly developed assembly pipeline to a metagenomic dataset of A. aerophoba consisting of a PacBio long-read dataset and six Illumina short-read datasets optimized for subsequent differential coverage binning, I aimed at sequencing a larger number and greater diversity of symbionts. The results of this project are currently in review by The ISME Journal. The complementation of Illumina short-read with PacBio long-read sequencing data for binning of this highly complex metagenome greatly improved the overall assembly statistics and improved the quality of the binned genomes. Thirty-seven genomes from 13 bacterial phyla and candidate phyla were binned representing the most prominent members of the microbiome of A. aerophoba. A statistical comparison revealed an enrichment of genes involved in restriction modification and toxin-antitoxin systems in most symbiont genomes over selected reference genomes. Both are defense features against incoming foreign DNA, which may be important for sponge symbionts due to the sponge’s filtration and phagocytosis activity that exposes the symbionts to high levels of free DNA. Also host colonization and matrix utilization features were significantly enriched. Due to the diversity of the binned symbiont genomes, a within-symbionts genome comparison was possible, that revealed three guilds of symbionts characterized by i) nutritional specialization on the metabolization of carnitine, ii) specialization on sulfated polysaccharides, and iii) apparent nutritional generalism. Both carnitine and sulfated polysaccharides are abundant in the sponge extracellular matrix and therefore available to the sponge symbionts as substrates. In summary, the genomes of the diverse community of symbionts in A. aerophoba were united in their defense features, but specialized regarding their nutritional preferences.
Donor CD4\(^+\)Foxp3\(^+\) regulatory T cells (T reg cells) suppress graft-versus-host disease (GvHD) after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HCT allo-HCT]). Current clinical study protocols rely on the ex vivo expansion of donor T reg cells and their infusion in high numbers. In this study, we present a novel strategy for inhibiting GvHD that is based on the in vivo expansion of recipient T reg cells before allo-HCT, exploiting the crucial role of tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 (TNFR2) in T reg cell biology. Expanding radiation-resistant host T reg cells in recipient mice using a mouse TNFR2-selective agonist before allo-HCT significantly prolonged survival and reduced GvHD severity in a TNFR2-and T reg cell-dependent manner. The beneficial effects of transplanted T cells against leukemia cells and infectious pathogens remained unaffected. A corresponding human TNFR2-specific agonist expanded human T reg cells in vitro. These observations indicate the potential of our strategy to protect allo-HCT patients from acute GvHD by expanding T reg cells via selective TNFR2 activation in vivo.
Plants do not have neurons but operate transmembrane ion channels and can get electrical excited by physical and chemical clues. Among them the Venus flytrap is characterized by its peculiar hapto-electric signaling. When insects collide with trigger hairs emerging the trap inner surface, the mechanical stimulus within the mechanosensory organ is translated into a calcium signal and an action potential (AP). Here we asked how the Ca\(^{2+}\) wave and AP is initiated in the trigger hair and how it is feed into systemic trap calcium-electrical networks. When Dionaea muscipula trigger hairs matures and develop hapto-electric excitability the mechanosensitive anion channel DmMSL10/FLYC1 and voltage dependent SKOR type Shaker K\(^{+}\) channel are expressed in the sheering stress sensitive podium. The podium of the trigger hair is interface to the flytrap’s prey capture and processing networks. In the excitable state touch stimulation of the trigger hair evokes a rise in the podium Ca2+ first and before the calcium signal together with an action potential travel all over the trap surface. In search for podium ion channels and pumps mediating touch induced Ca\(^{2+}\) transients, we, in mature trigger hairs firing fast Ca\(^{2+}\) signals and APs, found OSCA1.7 and GLR3.6 type Ca\(^{2+}\) channels and ACA2/10 Ca\(^{2+}\) pumps specifically expressed in the podium. Like trigger hair stimulation, glutamate application to the trap directly evoked a propagating Ca\(^{2+}\) and electrical event. Given that anesthetics affect K\(^+\) channels and glutamate receptors in the animal system we exposed flytraps to an ether atmosphere. As result propagation of touch and glutamate induced Ca\(^{2+}\) and AP long-distance signaling got suppressed, while the trap completely recovered excitability when ether was replaced by fresh air. In line with ether targeting a calcium channel addressing a Ca\(^{2+}\) activated anion channel the AP amplitude declined before the electrical signal ceased completely. Ether in the mechanosensory organ did neither prevent the touch induction of a calcium signal nor this post stimulus decay. This finding indicates that ether prevents the touch activated, glr3.6 expressing base of the trigger hair to excite the capture organ.
Fungal endophytes of the genus Epichloë live symbiotically in cool season grass species and can produce alkaloids toxic to insects and vertebrates, yet reports of intoxication of grazing animals have been rare in Europe in contrast to overseas. However, due to the beneficial resistance traits observed in Epichloë infected grasses, the inclusion of Epichloë in seed mixtures might become increasingly advantageous. Despite the toxicity of fungal alkaloids, European seed mixtures are rarely tested for Epichloë infection and their infection status is unknown for consumers. In this study, we tested 24 commercially available seed mixtures for their infection rates with Epichloë endophytes and measured the concentrations of the alkaloids ergovaline, lolitrem B, paxilline, and peramine. We detected Epichloë infections in six seed mixtures, and four contained vertebrate and insect toxic alkaloids typical for Epichloë festucae var. lolii infecting Lolium perenne. As Epichloë infected seed mixtures can harm livestock, when infected grasses become dominant in the seeded grasslands, we recommend seed producers to test and communicate Epichloë infection status or avoiding Epichloë infected seed mixtures.
Abiotic environmental stress, as evoked by short-term exposure of greenhousegrown plants to ambient ultraviolet radiation (UV), induces chemical and morphological adaptations of plants. Responses depend on the strength of stress and differ between species and tissues of variable age. In two Brassicaceae, Sinapis alba and Nasturtium officinale, stress responses towards short-term exposure to ambient radiation including or excluding UV reveal a high phenotypic plasticity, with strong differences their chemical composition compared to plants that remained in the greenhouse. The most pronounced defensive response against UV, the accumulation of flavonoid pigments, was strongest in young UV-exposed leaves, with an increase of the more effectice flavonol quercetin on the expense of less effectice kaempferol. Glucosinolates and myrosinase enzymes showed highly species-specific responses to UV-stress. Feeding behaviour and larval performance of the oligophagous Brassicaceae specialist, Phaedon cochleariae (Chrysomelidae; Coleoptera) were poorly affected by these differently UV-exposed host plants. Effects of plant stress on larval development were restricted to a minor variation in body mass due to variable food conversion of certain larval instars, which were compensated until pupation. Moreover, larval developmental times were unaffected by UV-exposure, but varied between species and leaves of different age. For P. cochleariae, this lack of variation in larval and pupal development towards UV-altered phytochemistry may suggest a strong genetic fixation of life history traits. In combination, the high plasticity towards variable food quality may correspond to the beetles’s specialisation on a narrow range of chemically highly variable host plants. Apart from being involved in plant defence against generalist herbivores, glucosinolates may also act as recognition cues and feeding stimulants for specialist insects. In earlier studies, glucosinolates were assumed to stimulate feeding by P. cochleariae, and they were suggested to be present on outermost leaf surfaces. However, since these findings were based on crude extraction methods, the presence of feeding stimulants in epicuticular waxes of Brassicaceae was re-investigated. In our study, glucosinolates were not detectable in mechanically removed waxes in Brassica napus and N. officinale, whereas substrate concentrations in solvent leaf extracts corresponded to densities and closure of leaf surface stomata. Therefore, glucosinolates that originate from the mesophyll may have been washed out through open stomata. Neither leaf waxes, nor leaf waxes combined with sinigrin or pure sinigrin evoked feeding. Moreover, in choice tests, these leaf beetles clearly preferred to feed on de-waxed surfaces. Finally, the presence of feeding stimulants in epicuticular waxes is highly unlikely considering the physico-chemical properties of the plant cuticle. The lack of stimulants on the outermost surface corresponds to the plant’s perspective, which should avoid easily accessible feeding stimulants. Nevertheless, the role of glucosinolates for feeding stimulation of P. cochleariae remained unclear. Therefore, S. alba leaf extracts of different polarities were tested in bioassays in order to identify which chemical leaf compounds act as stimulants. In bioassay-guided fractionations of methanol extracts by semi-preparative HPLC, two distinct fractions with stimulating activity were detected, whereas other fractions were not effective. Flavonoids were identified as main component in one stimulating fractions, the second fraction mainly contained glucosinolates, including sinalbin. The combination of both fractions was significantly more stimulating than each individual fraction, indicating additive effects of at least one compound of each fraction. However, since the combined fractions were less effective compared to the original extracts, other compounds may additionally be involved in the complex composition of leaf compounds acting as feeding stimulants for P. cochleariae. Finally, fractionated extracts of UV altered plants were used to test whether the strength of feeding responses depend on different ratios of glucosinolates and flavonoids. However, since the feeding behavior of this leaf beetle was not affected, such quantitative variations were concluded to be less important. The initiation of feeding behaviour may solely depend on the presence of stimulating compounds.
While much research has addressed the aboveground response of trees to climate warming and related water shortage, not much is known about the drought sensitivity of the fine root system, in particular of mature trees. This study investigates the response of topsoil (0–10 cm) fine root biomass (FRB), necromass (FRN), and fine root morphology of five temperate broadleaf tree species (Acer platanoides L., Carpinus betulus L., Fraxinus excelsior L., Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl., Tilia cordata Mill.) to a reduction in water availability, combining a precipitation gradient study (nine study sites; mean annual precipitation (MAP): 920–530 mm year\(^{−1}\)) with the comparison of a moist period (average spring conditions) and an exceptionally dry period in the summer of the subsequent year. The extent of the root necromass/biomass (N/B) ratio increase was used as a measure of the species’ belowground sensitivity to water deficits. We hypothesized that the N/B ratio increases with long-term (precipitation gradient) and short-term reductions (moist vs. dry period) of water availability, while FRB changes only a little. In four of the five species (exception: A. platanoides), FRB did not change with a reduction in MAP, whereas FRN and N/B ratio increased toward the dry sites under ample water supply (exception: Q. petraea). Q. petraea was also the only species not to reduce root tip frequency after summer drought. Different slopes of the N/B ratio-MAP relation similarly point at a lower belowground drought sensitivity of Q. petraea than of the other species. After summer drought, all species lost the MAP dependence of the N/B ratio. Thus, fine root mortality increased more at the moister than the drier sites, suggesting a generally lower belowground drought sensitivity of the drier stands. We conclude that the five species differ in their belowground drought response. Q. petraea follows the most conservative soil exploration strategy with a generally smaller FRB and more drought-tolerant fine roots, as it maintains relatively constant FRB, FRN, and morphology across spatial and temporal dimensions of soil water deficits.
Maintaining the integrity of the cuticular transpiration barrier even at elevated temperatures is of vital importance especially for hot-desert plants. Currently, the temperature dependence of the leaf cuticular water permeability and its relationship with the chemistry of the cuticles are not known for a single desert plant. This study investigates whether (i) the cuticular permeability of a desert plant is lower than that of species from non-desert habitats, (ii) the temperature-dependent increase of permeability is less pronounced than in those species and (iii) whether the susceptibility of the cuticular permeability barrier to high temperatures is related to the amounts or properties of the cutin or the cuticular waxes. We test these questions with Rhazya stricta using the minimum leaf water vapour conductance (gmin) as a proxy for cuticular water permeability. gmin of R. stricta (5.41 × 10\(^{-5}\) m s\(^{-1}\) at 25 °C) is in the upper range of all existing data for woody species from various non-desert habitats. At the same time, in R. stricta, the effect of temperature (15-50 °C) on gmin (2.4-fold) is lower than in all other species (up to 12-fold). Rhazya stricta is also special since the temperature dependence of gmin does not become steeper above a certain transition temperature. For identifying the chemical and physical foundation of this phenomenon, the amounts and the compositions of cuticular waxes and cutin were determined. The leaf cuticular wax (251.4 μg cm\(^{-2}\)) is mainly composed of pentacyclic triterpenoids (85.2% of total wax) while long-chain aliphatics contribute only 3.4%. In comparison with many other species, the triterpenoid-to-cutin ratio of R. stricta (0.63) is high. We propose that the triterpenoids deposited within the cutin matrix restrict the thermal expansion of the polymer and, thus, prevent thermal damage to the highly ordered aliphatic wax barrier even at high temperatures.
Arid environments cover almost one-third of the land over the world. Plant life in hot arid regions is prone to the water shortage and associated high temperatures. Drought-stressed plants close the stomata to reduce water loss. Under such conditions, the remaining water loss exclusively happens across the plant cuticle. The cuticular water permeability equals the minimum and inevitable water loss from the epidermal cells to the atmosphere under maximally stomatal closure. Thus, low cuticular water permeability is primordial for plant survival and viability under limited water source. The assumption that non-succulent xerophytes retard water loss due to the secretion of a heavier cuticle is often found in the literature. Intuitively, this seems to be plausible, but few studies have been conducted to evaluate the cuticular permeability of xerophilous plants. In chapter one, we investigated whether the cuticular permeability of Quercus coccifera L. grown in the aridest Mediterranean-subtype climate is indeed lower than that of individuals grown under temperate climate conditions. Also, the cuticular wax chemical compositions of plants grown in both habitats were qualitatively and quantitatively analysed by gas-chromatography. In few words, our findings showed that although the cuticular wax deposition increased in plants under Mediterranean climate, the cuticular permeability remained unaltered, regardless of habitat.
The associated high temperatures in arid regions can drastically increase the cuticular water permeability. Thereby, the thermal stability of the cuticular transpirational barrier is decisive for safeguarding non-succulent xerophytes against desiccation. The successful adaptation of plants to hot deserts might be based on finding different solutions to cope with water and heat stresses. Water-saver plants close the stomata before the leaf water potential drastically changes in order to prevent damage, whereas water-spender plants reduce the leaf water potential by opening the stomata, which allow them to extract water from the deep soil to compensate the high water loss by stomatal transpiration. In chapter two, we compare the thermal stability of the cuticular transpiration barrier of the desert water-saver Phoenix dactylifera L. and the water-spender Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. In short, the temperature-dependent increase of the cuticular permeability of P. dactylifera was linear over the whole temperature range (25-50°C), while that of C. colocynthis was biphasic with a steep increase at temperatures ≥ 40°C. This drastic increase of cuticular permeability indicates a thermally induced breakdown of the C. colocynthis cuticular transpiration barrier, which does not occur in P. dactylifera. We further discussed how the specific chemical composition of the cutin and cuticular waxes might contribute to the pronounced thermal resistance of the P. dactylifera cuticular transpiration barrier.
A multitude of morpho and physiological modifications, including photosynthetic thermal tolerance and traits related to water balance, led to the successful plant colonisation of hot arid regions over the globe. High evaporative demand and elevated temperatures very often go along together, thereby constraining the plant life in arid environments. In chapter 3, we surveyed cuticular permeability, leaf thermal tolerance, and cuticular wax chemical composition of 14 non-succulent plant species native from some of the hottest and driest biomes in South-America, Europe, and Asia. Our findings showed that xerophilous flowering plants present high variability for cuticular permeability and leaf thermal tolerance, but both physiological features could not be associated with the species original habitat. We also provide substantial evidence that non-succulent xerophytes with more efficient cuticular transpirational barrier have higher leaf thermal tolerance, which might indicate a potential coevolution of these features in hot arid biomes. We further discussed the efficiency of the cuticular transpiration barrier in function to the cuticular wax chemical composition in the general discussion section.
The marine sponge-associated bacterium Actinokineospora sp. strain EG49 produces the antitrypanosomal angucycline-like compound actinosporin A. The draft genome of Actinokineospora sp. EG49 has a size of 7.5 megabases and a GC content of 72.8% and contains 6,629 protein-coding sequences (CDS). antiSMASH predicted 996 genes residing in 36 secondary metabolite gene clusters.
Draft genome of the \(Arabidopsis\) \(thaliana\) phyllosphere bacterium, \(Williamsia\) sp. ARP1
(2016)
The Gram-positive actinomycete \(Williamsia\) sp. ARP1 was originally isolated from the \(Arabidopsis\) \(thaliana\) phyllosphere. Here we describe the general physiological features of this microorganism together with the draft genome sequence and annotation. The 4,745,080 bp long genome contains 4434 protein-coding genes and 70 RNA genes. To our knowledge, this is only the second reported genome from the genus \(Williamsia\) and the first sequenced strain from the phyllosphere. The presented genomic information is interpreted in the context of an adaptation to the phyllosphere habitat.
DNA Methylation Mediated Control of Gene Expression Is Critical for Development of Crown Gall Tumors
(2013)
Crown gall tumors develop after integration of the T-DNA of virulent Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains into the plant genome. Expression of the T-DNA–encoded oncogenes triggers proliferation and differentiation of transformed plant cells. Crown gall development is known to be accompanied by global changes in transcription, metabolite levels, and physiological processes. High levels of abscisic acid (ABA) in crown galls regulate expression of drought stress responsive genes and mediate drought stress acclimation, which is essential for wild-type-like tumor growth. An impact of epigenetic processes such as DNA methylation on crown gall development has been suggested; however, it has not yet been investigated comprehensively. In this study, the methylation pattern of Arabidopsis thaliana crown galls was analyzed on a genome-wide scale as well as at the single gene level. Bisulfite sequencing analysis revealed that the oncogenes Ipt, IaaH, and IaaM were unmethylated in crown galls. Nevertheless, the oncogenes were susceptible to siRNA–mediated methylation, which inhibited their expression and subsequently crown gall growth. Genome arrays, hybridized with methylated DNA obtained by immunoprecipitation, revealed a globally hypermethylated crown gall genome, while promoters were rather hypomethylated. Mutants with reduced non-CG methylation developed larger tumors than the wild-type controls, indicating that hypermethylation inhibits plant tumor growth. The differential methylation pattern of crown galls and the stem tissue from which they originate correlated with transcriptional changes. Genes known to be transcriptionally inhibited by ABA and methylated in crown galls became promoter methylated upon treatment of A. thaliana with ABA. This suggests that the high ABA levels in crown galls may mediate DNA methylation and regulate expression of genes involved in drought stress protection. In summary, our studies provide evidence that epigenetic processes regulate gene expression, physiological processes, and the development of crown gall tumors.
DNA binding properties of human Cdc45 suggest a function as molecular wedge for DNA unwinding
(2014)
The cell division cycle protein 45 (Cdc45) represents an essential replication factor that, together with the Mcm2-7 complex and the four subunits of GINS, forms the replicative DNA helicase in eukaryotes. Recombinant human Cdc45 (hCdc45) was structurally characterized and its DNA-binding properties were determined. Synchrotron radiation circular dichroism spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering, small-angle X-ray scattering and atomic force microscopy revealed that hCdc45 exists as an alpha-helical monomer and possesses a structure similar to its bacterial homolog RecJ. hCdc45 bound long (113-mer or 80-mer) single-stranded DNA fragments with a higher affinity than shorter ones (34-mer). hCdc45 displayed a preference for 3' protruding strands and bound tightly to single-strand/double-strand DNA junctions, such as those presented by Y-shaped DNA, bubbles and displacement loops, all of which appear transiently during the initiation of DNA replication. Collectively, our findings suggest that hCdc45 not only binds to but also slides on DNA with a 3'-5' polarity and, thereby acts as a molecular 'wedge' to initiate DNA strand displacement.
Diversity of Nonribosomal Peptide Synthetase Genes in the Microbial Metagenomes of Marine Sponges
(2012)
Genomic mining revealed one major nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) phylogenetic cluster in 12 marine sponge species, one ascidian, an actinobacterial isolate and seawater. Phylogenetic analysis predicts its taxonomic affiliation to the actinomycetes and hydroxy-phenyl-glycine as a likely substrate. Additionally, a phylogenetically distinct NRPS gene cluster was discovered in the microbial metagenome of the sponge Aplysina aerophoba, which shows highest similarities to NRPS genes that were previously assigned, by ways of single cell genomics, to a Chloroflexi sponge symbiont. Genomic mining studies such as the one presented here for NRPS genes, contribute to on-going efforts to characterize the genomic potential of sponge-associated microbiota for secondary metabolite biosynthesis.
The phyllosphere of plants is inhabited by diverse microorganisms, however, the factors shaping their community composition are not fully elucidated. The plant cuticle represents the initial contact surface between microorganisms and the plant. We thus aimed to investigate whether mutations in the cuticular wax biosynthesis would affect the diversity of the phyllosphere microbiota. A set of four Arabidopsis thaliana eceriferum mutants (cer1, cer6, cer9, cer16) and their respective wild type (Landsberg erecta) were subjected to an outdoor growth period and analysed towards this purpose. The chemical distinctness of the mutant wax phenotypes was confirmed by gas chromatographic measurements. Next generation amplicon pyrosequencing of the bacterial communities showed distinct community patterns. This observation was supported by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis experiments. Microbial community analyses revealed bacterial phylotypes that were ubiquitously present on all plant lines (termed “core” community) while others were positively or negatively affected by the wax mutant phenotype (termed “plant line-specific“ community). We conclude from this study that plant cuticular wax composition can affect the community composition of phyllosphere bacteria.
Calcium ion (Ca2+) and protons (H+) are both regarded as second messengers, participating in plant growth and stress mechanisms. However, H+ signals in plant physiology are less well investigated compared to Ca2+ signals. If interconnections between these two second messengers exist remains to be uncovered because appropriate imaging tools to monitor Ca2+ and H+ simultaneously in the same cell as well as accurate bioinformatics analysis remain to be developed. To overcome this problem and unravel the role and possible interconnection of Ca2+ and H+ in plants, a new biosensor named CapHensor was developed and optimized to visualize intracellular Ca2+ and H+ changes simultaneously and ratiometrically in the same cell. The CapHensor consisted of an optimized green fluorescent pH sensor (PRpHluorin) and an established red fluorescent Ca2+ sensor (R-GECO1) that were combined in one construct via a P2A sequence. A P2A self-cleavage site between the two sensors allowed to express equal amounts but spatially separated sensors, which enabled artifact-free and ratiometric imaging of cellular Ca2+ and pH side-by-side. The function of the CapHensor was verified in pollen tubes, since they possess standing Ca2+ and pH gradients. We found better imaging quality and the signal-to-noise ratio to be enhanced in live-cell imaging when two R-GECO1 proteins were fused in tandem within the CapHensor construct. To guarantee exclusive subcellular localization and avoid mixed signals from different compartments, Nuclear Export Sequence (NES) and Nuclear Localization Sequence (NLS) were used to target PRpHluorin and R-GECO1 to distinct compartments. After optimization and verification its function, CapHensor was successfully expressed in different cell types to investigate the role of Ca2+ and H+ signals to control polar growth of pollen tube, stomatal movement or leaf defense signaling. Results obtained in the past indicated both Ca2+ gradients and pH gradients in pollen tubes play roles in polar growth. However, the role and temporal relationship between the growth process and changes in Ca2+ and pH have not been conclusively resolved. Using CapHensor, I found cytosolic acidification at the tip could promote and alkalization to suppress growth velocity in N. tabacum pollen tubes, indicating that cytosolic H+ concentrations ([H+]cyt) play an important role in regulation pollen tubes growth despite the accompanied changes in cytosolic Ca2+ concentrations ([Ca2+]cyt). Moreover, growth correlated much better with the tip [H+]cyt regime than with the course of the tip [Ca2+]cyt regime. However, surprisingly, tip-focused [Ca2+]cyt andII [H+]cyt oscillations both lagged behind growth oscillations approximately 33 s and 18 s, respectively, asking for a re-evaluation of the role that tip [Ca2+]cyt may play in pollen tube growth. Live-cell CapHensor imaging combined with electrophysiology uncovered that oscillatory membrane depolarization correlated better with tip [H+]cyt oscillations than with tip [Ca2+]cyt oscillations, indicative for a prominent role of [H+]cyt to also control electrogenic membrane transport. Using CapHensor, reading out cellular movement at the same time enabled to provide a precise temporal and spatial resolution of ion signaling events, pointing out a prominent role of [H+]cyt in pollen tube tip growth. For leaf cells, a special CapHensor construct design had to be developed, containing additional NES localization sequences to avoid overlapping of fluorescense signals from the nucleus and the cytosol. Once this was achieved, the role of Ca2+ and pH changes in guard cells, another typical single-cell system was investigated. Cytosolic pH changes have been described in stomatal movement, but the physiological role of pH and the interaction with changing Ca2+ signals were still unexplored. Combining CapHensor with the here developed technique to monitor stomatal movement in parallel, the role of Ca2+ and H+ in stomatal movement was studied in detail and novel aspects were identified. The phytohormone ABA and the bacterial elicitor flagellin (flg22) are typical abiotic and biotic stresses, respectively, to trigger stomatal closure. What kind of Ca2+ and H+ signals by ABA and flg22 are set-off in guard cells and what their temporal relationship and role for stomatal movement is were unknown. Similar [Ca2+]cyt increases were observed upon ABA and flg22 triggered stomatal closure, but [H+]cyt dynamics differed fundamentally. ABA triggered pronounced cytosolic alkalization preceded the [Ca2+]cyt responses significantly by 57 s while stomata started to close ca. 205 s after phytohormone application. With flg22, stomatal closure was accompanied only with a mild cytosolic alkalization but the [Ca2+]cyt response was much more pronounced compared to the ABA effects. Where the cytosolic alkalization originates from was unclear but the vacuole was speculated to contribute in the past. In this thesis, vacuolar pH changes were visualized by the dye BCECF over time, basically displaying exactly the opposite course of the concentration shift in the vacuole than observed in the cytosol. This is indicative for the vacuolar pH dynamics to be coupled strongly to the cytosolic pH changes. In stomatal closure signalling, reactive oxygen species (ROS) were proposed to play a major role, however, only very high concentration of H2O2 (> 200 µM), which resulted in the loss of membrane integrity, induced stomatal closure. Unexpectedly, physiological concentrations of ROS led to cytosolic acidificationIII which was associated with stomatal opening, but not stomatal closure. To study the role of [H+]cyt to steer stomatal movement in detail, extracellular and intracellular pH variations were evoked in N. tabacum guard cells and their behaviour was followed. The results demonstrated cytosolic acidification stimulated stomatal opening while cytosolic alkalization triggered stomatal closure accompanied by [Ca2+]cyt elevations. This demonstrated pH regulation to be an important aspect in stomatal movement and to feed-back on the Ca2+-dynamics. It was remarkable that cytosolic alkalization but not [Ca2+]cyt increase seemed to play a crucial role in stomatal closure, because more pronounced cytosolic alkalization, evoked stronger stomatal closure despite similar [Ca2+]cyt increases. Increases in [Ca2+]cyt, which are discussed as an early stomatal closure signal in the past, could not trigger stomatal closure alone in my experiments, even when extremely strong [Ca2+]cyt signals were triggered. Regarding the interaction between the two second messengers, [Ca2+]cyt and [H+]cyt were negatively correlated most of the times, which was different from pollen tubes showing positive correlation of [Ca2+]cyt and [H+]cyt regimes. [Ca2+]cyt elevations were always associated with a cytosolic alkalization and this relationship could be blocked by the presence of vanadate, a plasma membrane H+-pump blocker, indicating plasma membrane H+-ATPases to contribute to the negative correlation of [Ca2+]cyt and [H+]cyt. To compare with guard cells, cytosolic and nuclear versions of CapHensor were expressed in N. benthamiana mesophyll cells, a multicellular system I investigated. Mesophyll cell responses to the same stimuli as tested in guard cells demonstrated that ABA and H2O2 did not induce any [Ca2+]cyt and [H+]cyt changes while flg22 induced an increase in [Ca2+]cyt and [H+]cyt, which is different from the response in guard cells. I could thus unequivocally demonstrate that guard cells and mesophyll cells do respond differently with [Ca2+]cyt and [H+]cyt changes to the same stimuli, a concept that has been proposed before, but never demonstrated in such detail for plants. Spontaneous Ca2+ oscillations have been observed for a long time in guard cells, but the function or cause is still poorly understood. Two populations of oscillatory guard cells were identified according to their [Ca2+]cyt and [H+]cyt phase relationship in my study. In approximately half of the oscillatory cells, [H+]cyt oscillations preceded [Ca2+]cyt oscillations whereas [Ca2+]cyt was the leading signal in the other half of the guard cells population. Strikingly, natural [H+]cyt oscillations were dampened by ABA but not by flg22. This effect could be well explained by dampening of vacuolar H+ oscillations in the presence of ABA, but not through flg22. Vacuolar pH contributes to spontaneous [H+]cyt oscillations and ABA but not flg22 can block the interdependence of naturalIV [Ca2+]cyt and [H+]cyt signals. To study the role of [Ca2+]cyt oscillations in stomatal movement, solutions containing high and low KCl concentrations were applied aiming to trigger [Ca2+]cyt oscillations. The triggering of [Ca2+]cyt oscillations by this method was established two decades ago leading to the dogma that [Ca2+]cyt increases are the crucial signal for stomatal closure. However, I found stomatal movement by this method was mainly due to osmotic effects rather than [Ca2+]cyt increases. Fortunately, through this methodology, I found a strong correlation between cytosolic pH and the transport of potassium across the plasma membrane and vacuole existed. The plasma membrane H+-ATPases and H+-coupled K+ transporters were identified as the cause of [H+]cyt changes, both very important aspects in stomata physiology that were not visualized experimentally before. Na+ transport is also important for stomatal regulation and leaves generally since salt can be transported from the root to the shoot. Unlike well-described Ca2+- dependent mechanisms in roots, how leaves process salt stress is not at all understood. I applied salt on protoplasts from leaves, mesophyll cells and guard cells and combined live-cell imaging with Vm recordings to understand the transport and signaling for leaf cells to cope with salt stress. In both, mesophyll and guard cells, NaCl did not trigger Ca2+-signals as described for roots but rather triggered Ca2+ peaks when washing salt out. However, membrane depolarization and pronounced alkalinization were very reliably triggered by NaCl, which could presumably act as a signal for detoxification of high salt concentrations. In line with this, I found the vacuolar cation/H+ antiporter NHX1 to play a role in sodium transport, [H+]cyt homeostasis and the control of membrane potential. Overexpression of AtNHX1 enabled to diminish [H+]cyt changes and resulted in a smaller depolarization responses druing NaCl stress. My results thus demonstrated in contrast to roots, leaf cells do not use Ca2+-dependent signalling cascades to deal with salt stress. I could show Na+ and K+ induced [H+]cyt and Vm responses and Cl- transport to only have a minor impact. Summing all my results up briefly, I uncovered pH signals to play important roles to control pollen tube growth, stomatal movement and leaf detoxification upon salt. My results strongly suggested pH changes might be a more important signal than previously thought to steer diverse processes in plants. Using CapHensor in combination with electrophysiology and bioinformatics tools, I discovered distinct interconnections between [Ca2+]cyt and [H+]cyt in different cell types and distinct [Ca2+]cyt and [H+]cyt signals are initiated through diverse stimuli and environmental cues. The CapHensor will be very useful in the future to further investigate the coordinated role of Ca2+ and pH changes in controlling plant physiology.
To reach their target site, systemic pesticides must enter the plant from a spray droplet applied in the field. The uptake of an active ingredient (AI) takes place via the barrier-forming cuticular membrane, which is the outermost layer of the plant, separating it from the surrounding environment. Formulations are usually used which, in addition to the AI, also contain stabilizers and adjuvants. Adjuvants can either have surface-active properties or they act directly as barrier-modifying agents. The latter are grouped in the class of accelerating adjuvants, whereby individual variants may also have surface-active properties. The uptake of a pesticide from a spray droplet depends essentially on its permeability through the cuticular barrier. Permeability defines a combined parameter, which is the product of AI mobility and AI solubility within the cuticle. In recent decades, several tools have been developed that allowed the determination of individual parameters of organic compound penetration across the cuticular membrane. Nevertheless, earlier studies showed that mainly cuticular waxes are the barrier-determining component of the cuticular membrane and additionally, it was shown that mainly the very-long-chain aliphatic compounds (VLCAs) are responsible for establishing an effective barrier. However, the barrier-determining role of the individual VLCAs, being classified according to their respective functional groups, is still unknown.
Therefore, the following objectives were pursued and achieved in this work: (1) A new ATR-FTIR-based approach was developed to measure the temperature-dependent real-time diffusion kinetics of organic models for active ingredients (AIs) in paraffin wax, exclusively consisting of very-long chain alkanes. (2) The developed ATR-FTIR approach was applied to determine the diffusion kinetics of self-accelerating adjuvants in cuticular model waxes of different VLCA composition. At the same time, wax-specific changes were recorded in the respective IR spectra, which provided information about the respective wax modification. (3) The ATR-FTIR method was used to characterize the diffusion kinetics, as well as to determine the wax-specific sorption capacities for an AI-modeling organic compound and water in cuticular model waxes after adjuvant treatment. Regarding the individual chemical compositions and structures, conclusions were drawn about the adjuvant-specific modes of action (MoA).
In the first chapter, the ATR-FTIR based approach to determine organic compound diffusion kinetics in paraffin wax was successfully established. The diffusion kinetics of the AI modelling organic compounds heptyl parabene (HPB) and 4-cyanophenol (CNP) were recorded, comprising different lipophilicities and molecular volumes typical for AIs used in pesticide formulations. Derived diffusion coefficients ranged within 10-15 m2 s-1, thus being thoroughly higher than those obtained from previous experiments using an approach solely investigating desorption kinetics in reconstituted cuticular waxes. An ln-linear dependence between the diffusion coefficients and the applied diffusion temperature was demonstrated for the first time in cuticular model wax, from which activation energies were derived. The determined activation energies were 66.2 ± 7.4 kJ mol-1 and 56.4 ± 9.8 kJ mol-1, being in the expected range of already well-founded activation energies required for organic compound diffusion across cuticular membranes, which again confirmed the significant contribution of waxes to the cuticular barrier. Deviations from the assumed Fickian diffusion were attributed to co-occurring water diffusion and apparatus-specific properties.
In the second and third chapter, mainly the diffusion kinetics of accelerating adjuvants in the cuticular model waxes candelilla wax and carnauba wax were investigated, and simultaneously recorded changes in the wax-specific portion of the IR spectrum were interpreted as indications of plasticization. For this purpose, the oil derivative methyl oleate, as well as the organophosphate ester TEHP and three non-ionic monodisperse alcohol ethoxylates (AEs) C12E2, C12E4 and C12E6 were selected. Strong dependence of diffusion on the respective principal components of the mainly aliphatic waxes was demonstrated. The diffusion kinetics of the investigated adjuvants were faster in the n-alkane dominated candelilla wax than in the alkyl ester dominated carnauba wax. Furthermore, the equilibrium absorptions, indicating equilibrium concentrations, were also higher in candelilla wax than in carnauba wax. It was concluded that alkyl ester dominated waxes feature higher resistance to diffusion of accelerating adjuvants than alkane dominated waxes with shorter average chain lengths due to their structural integrity. This was also found either concerning candelilla/policosanol (n-alcohol) or candelilla/rice bran wax (alkyl-esters) blends: with increasing alcohol concentration, the barrier function was decreased, whereas it was increased with increasing alkyl ester concentration. However, due to the high variability of the individual diffusion curves, only a trend could be assumed here, but significant differences were not shown. The variability itself was described in terms of fluctuating crystalline arrangements and partial phase separation of the respective wax mixtures, which had inevitable effects on the adjuvant diffusion. However, diffusion kinetics also strongly depended on the studied adjuvants. Significantly slower methyl oleate diffusion accompanied by a less pronounced reduction in orthorhombic crystallinity was found in carnauba wax than in candelilla wax, whereas TEHP diffusion was significantly less dependent on the respective wax structure and therefore induced considerable plasticization in both waxes. Of particular interest was the AE diffusion into both waxes. Differences in diffusion kinetics were also found here between candelilla blends and carnauba wax. However, these depended equally on the degree of ethoxylation of the respective AEs. The lipophilic C12E2 showed approximately Fickian diffusion kinetics in both waxes, accompanied by a drastic reduction in orthorhombic crystallinity, especially in candelilla wax, whereas the more hydrophilic C12E6 showed significantly retarded diffusion kinetics associated with a smaller effect on orthorhombic crystallinity. The individual diffusion kinetics of the investigated adjuvants sometimes showed drastic deviations from the Fickian diffusion model, indicating a self-accelerating effect. Hence, adjuvant diffusion kinetics were accompanied by a distinct initial lag phase, indicating a critical concentration in the wax necessary for effective penetration, leading to sigmoidal rather than to exponential diffusion kinetics.
The last chapter dealt with the adjuvant-affected diffusion of the AI modelling CNP in candelilla and carnauba wax. Using ATR-FTIR, diffusion kinetics were recorded after adjuvant treatment, all of which were fully explicable based on the Fickian model, with high diffusion coefficients ranging from 10-14 to 10-13 m2 s-1. It is obvious that the diffusion coefficients presented in this work consistently demonstrated plasticization induced accelerated CNP mobilities. Furthermore, CNP equilibrium concentrations were derived, from which partition- and permeability coefficients could be determined. Significant differences between diffusion coefficients (mobility) and partition coefficients (solubility) were found on the one hand depending on the respective waxes, and on the other hand depending on treatment with respective adjuvants. Mobility was higher in candelilla wax than in carnauba wax only after methyl oleate treatment. Treatment with TEHP and AEs resulted in higher CNP mobility in the more polar alkyl ester dominated carnauba wax. The partition coefficients, on the other hand, were significantly lower after methyl oleate treatment in both candelilla and carnauba wax as followed by TEHP or AE treatment. Models were designed for the CNP penetration mode considering the respective adjuvants in both investigated waxes. Co-penetrating water, which is the main ingredient of spray formulations applied in the field, was likely the reason for the drastic differences in adjuvant efficacy. Especially the investigated AEs favored an enormous water uptake in both waxes with increasing ethoxylation level. Surprisingly, this effect was also found for the lipophilic TEHP in both waxes. This led to the assumption that the AI permeability is not exclusively determined by adjuvant induced plasticization, but also depends on a “secondary plasticization”, induced by adjuvant-attracted co-penetrating water, consequently leading to swelling and drastic destabilization of the crystalline wax structure.
The successful establishment of the presented ATR-FTIR method represents a milestone for the study of adjuvant and AI diffusion kinetics in cuticular waxes. In particular, the simultaneously detectable wax modification and, moreover, the determinable water uptake form a perfect basis to establish the ATR-FTIR system as a universal screening tool for wax-adjuvants-AI-water interaction in crop protection science.
The technique to manipulate cells or living animals by illumination after gene transfer of light-sensitive proteins is called optogenetics. Successful optogenetics started with the use of the light-gated cation channel channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2). After early demonstrations of the power of ChR2, further light-sensitive ion channels and ion pumps were recruited to the optogenetic toolbox. Furthermore, mutations and chimera of ChR2 improved its versatility.
However, there is still a need for improved optogenetic tools, e.g. with higher permeability for calcium or better expression in the plasma membrane. In this thesis, my work focuses on the design of highly functional channelrhodopsins with enhanced Na+ and Ca2+ conductance.
First, I tested different N-terminal signal peptides to improve the plasma membrane targeting of Channelrhodopsins. We found that a N-terminal peptide, named LR, could improve the plasma membrane targeting of many rhodopsins. Modification with LR contributed to three to ten-fold larger photocurrents (than that of the original version) of multiple channelrhodopsins, like ChR2 from C. reinhardtii (CrChR2), PsChR, Chrimson, CheRiff, CeChR, ACRs, and the light-activated pump rhodopsins KR2, Jaw, HR.
Second, by introducing point mutation, I could further improve the light sensitivity and photocurrent of different channelrhodopsins. For instance, ChR2-XXM 2.0, ChR2-XXL 2.0 and PsChR D139H 2.0 exhibited hundred times larger photocurrents than wild type ChR2 and they show high light sensitivity. Also, the Ca2+ permeable channelrhodopsins PsCatCh 2.0f and PsCatCh 2.0e show very large photocurrents and fast kinetics. In addition, I also characterized a novel bi-stable CeChR (from the acidophilic green alga Chlamydomonas eustigma) with a much longer closing time.
Third, I analysed the ion selectivity of different ChRs, which provides a basis for rational selection of channelrhodopsins for different experimental purposes. I demonstrate that ChR2, Chronos, Chrimson, CheRiff and CeChR are highly proton conductive, compared with wild type PsChR. Interestingly, Chronos has the lowest potassium conductance among these channelrhodopsins. Furthermore, I found that mutation of an aspartate in TM4 of ChR2 (D156) and PsChR (D139) to histidine obviously increased both the sodium and calcium permeability while proton conductance was reduced. PsChR D139H 2.0 has the largest sodium conductance of any published channelrhodopsin variants. Additionally, I generated PsCatCh 2.0e which exhibits a ten-fold larger calcium current than the previously reported Ca2+ transporting CrChR2 mutant CatCh.
In summary, my research work
1.) described strategies for improving plasma membrane trafficking efficiency of opsins;
2.) yielded channelrhodopsins with fast kinetics or high light sensitivity;
3.) provided optogenetic tools with improved calcium and sodium conductance.
We could also improve the performance of channelrhodopsins with distinct action spectra, which will facilitate two-color neural excitation, both in-vitro and in-vivo.
Replication-competent oncolytic viral therapies have shown great promise preclinically and in clinical trials for the treatment of various cancers. They are able to preferentially and selectively propagate in cancer cells, consequently destroying tumor tissue via cell lysis, while leaving noncancerous tissues unharmed. Currently, biopsy is the gold standard for monitoring of viral tumor colonization and oncolysis. This may be feasible in preclinical or early clinical trials; however, a noninvasive method facilitating ongoing monitoring of viral therapy is needed for human studies. The tracking of viral delivery could give clinicians the ability to assess the biodistribution of oncolytic viruses to ensure safety and correlation with treatment efficacy. This work centers on the construction and testing of a VACV strain, GLV-1h153, carrying the human sodium iodide symporter (hNIS) as a marker gene for non-invasive tracking of virus by imaging. Thus, this project aimed to help develop imaging techniques for use in clinical trials of oncolytic viral therapy. Further, the feasibility and effectiveness of virally induced targeted radiotherapy as an anti-cancer strategy was also investigated. hNIS is an intrinsic plasma membrane protein which mediates the active transport and concentration of iodide in the thyroid gland and some extra-thyroidal tissues. It is also one of several human genes currently being used as reporters in preclinical studies and has already been used in clinical studies for imaging viral replication in prostate cancer. hNIS gene transfer via viral vector may allow infected tumor cells to concentrate several carrier-free radionuclide probes such as Iodide-124 (124I), Iodide-131 (131I), and 99m-Technecium Pertechtenate (99mTcO4), which have long been approved for human use. hNIS also has the advantage of being of human origin thus minimizing immunogenicity, and its transporter based system allows intracellular signal amplification. GLV-1h153 was tested in pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell line PANC-1. GLV-1h153 infected, replicated within, and killed PANC-1 cells in cell culture as efficiently as GLV-1h68 and provided dose-dependent levels of hNIS transgene expression in infected cells. Immunofluorescence detected successful transport of the protein to the cell membrane prior to cell lysis, which enhanced dose and time-dependent intracellular uptake of 131I. In vivo, GLV-1h153 was as safe and effective as GLV-1h68 in regressing pancreatic cancer xenografts. Tumor infection by virus was confirmed via optical imaging and histology. GLV-1h153 further facilitated deep tissue imaging of virus replication in tumors via Iodide-124I positron emission tomography (PET) as well as 99mTcO4-mediated gamma scintigraphy. This was possible with both intratumoral and intravenous injection of the virus with radiouptake retained as long as 24 and 48 hours after radiotracer injection. PET image quantitation of radiouptake in tumors was found to correlate well with tissue radiouptake counts. Autoradiography of GLV-1h153-infected tumors revealed a need for presence of virus (visualized with green fluorescent protein expression), viable tissue, and adequate blood flow to enhance radiouptake in tumors. Dosimetric analysis of uptake in infected tumors displayed potential for therapeutic doses of radiotherapy to be delivered systemically to tumors. When GLV-1h153 was combined with 131I for treatment, a modest additive effect was seen as compared to GLV-1h153 alone. Therefore, GLV-1h153 is a promising new candidate for treating pancreatic cancer and noninvasively imaging viral therapy. These findings warrant further investigation into possible long term monitoring of viral therapy, as well as synergistic or additive effects of radioiodine combined with this novel treatment and imaging modality.
Design of novel IL-4 antagonists employing site-specific chemical and biosynthetic glycosylation
(2021)
The cytokines interleukin 4 (IL-4) and IL-13 are important mediators in the humoral immune response and play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory diseases, such as asthma, allergies, and atopic dermatitis. Hence, IL-4 and IL-13 are key targets for treatment of such atopic diseases.
For cell signalling IL-4 can use two transmembrane receptor assemblies, the type I receptor consisting of receptors IL-4R and γc, and type II receptor consisting of receptors IL-4R and IL-13R1. The type II receptor is also the functional receptor of IL-13, receptor sharing being the molecular basis for the partially overlapping effects of IL-4 and IL-13. Since both cytokines require the IL-4R receptor for signal transduction, this allows the dual inhibition of both IL-4 and IL-13 by specifically blocking the receptor IL-4R.
This study describes the design and synthesis of novel antagonistic variants of human IL-4. Chemical modification was used to target positions localized in IL-4 binding sites for γc and IL-13R1 but outside of the binding epitope for IL-4R. In contrast to existing studies, which used synthetic chemical compounds like polyethylene glycol for modification of IL-4, we employed glycan molecules as a natural alternative. Since glycosylation can improve important pharmacological parameters of protein therapeutics, such as immunogenicity and serum half-life, the introduced glycan molecules thus would not only confer a steric hindrance based inhibitory effect but simultaneously might improve the pharmacokinetic profile of the IL-4 antagonist.
For chemical conjugation of glycan molecules, IL-4 variants containing additional cysteine residues were produced employing prokaryotic, as well as eukaryotic expression systems. The thiol-groups of the engineered cysteines thereby allow highly specific modification. Different strategies were developed enabling site-directed coupling of amine- or thiol- functionalized monosaccharides to introduced cysteine residues in IL-4. A linker-based coupling procedure and an approach requiring phenylselenyl bromide activation of IL-4 thiol-groups were hampered by several drawbacks, limiting their feasibility. Surprisingly, a third strategy, which involved refolding of IL-4 cysteine variants in the presence of thiol- glycans, readily allowed synthesis of IL-4 glycoconjugates in form of mixed disulphides in milligram amount. This approach, therefore, has the potential for large-scale synthesis of IL-4 antagonists with highly defined glycosylation. Obtaining a homogenous glycoconjugate with exactly defined glycan pattern would allow using the attached glycan structures for fine-tuning of pharmacokinetic properties of the IL-4 antagonist, such as absorption and metabolic stability.
The IL-4 glycoconjugates generated in this work proved to be highly effective antagonists inhibiting IL-4 and/or IL-13 dependent responses in cell-based experiments and in in vitro binding studies. Glycoengineered IL-4 antagonists thus present valuable alternatives to IL-4 inhibitors used for treatment of atopic diseases such as the neutralizing anti-IL-4R antibody Dupilumab.
Interleukin-4 (IL-4) plays a key role in atopic diseases. It coordinates T-helper cell differentiation to subtype 2, thereby directing defense toward humoral immunity. Together with Interleukin-13, IL-4 further induces immunoglobulin class switch to IgE. Antibodies of this type activate mast cells and basophilic and eosinophilic granulocytes, which release pro-inflammatory mediators accounting for the typical symptoms of atopic diseases. IL-4 and IL-13 are thus major targets for pharmaceutical intervention strategies to treat atopic diseases. Besides neutralizing antibodies against IL-4, IL-13, or its receptors, IL-4 antagonists can present valuable alternatives. Pitrakinra, an Escherichia coli-derived IL-4 antagonist, has been evaluated in clinical trials for asthma treatment in the past; however, deficits such as short serum lifetime and potential immunogenicity among others stopped further development. To overcome such deficits, PEGylation of therapeutically important proteins has been used to increase the lifetime and proteolytic stability. As an alternative, glycoengineering is an emerging strategy used to improve pharmacokinetics of protein therapeutics. In this study, we have established different strategies to attach glycan moieties to defined positions in IL-4. Different chemical attachment strategies employing thiol chemistry were used to attach a glucose molecule at amino acid position 121, thereby converting IL-4 into a highly effective antagonist. To enhance the proteolytic stability of this IL-4 antagonist, additional glycan structures were introduced by glycoengineering utilizing eucaryotic expression. IL-4 antagonists with a combination of chemical and biosynthetic glycoengineering could be useful as therapeutic alternatives to IL-4 neutralizing antibodies already used to treat atopic diseases.
Design and validation of a disease network of inflammatory processes in the NSG-UC mouse model
(2017)
Background: Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a highly progressive inflammatory disease that requires the interaction of epithelial, immune, endothelial and muscle cells and fibroblasts. Previous studies suggested two inflammatory conditions in UC-patients: ‘acute’ and ‘remodeling’ and that the design of a disease network might improve the understanding of the inflammatory processes. The objective of the study was to design and validate a disease network in the NOD-SCID IL2rγ\(^{null}\) (NSG)-UC mouse model to get a better understanding of the inflammatory processes.
Methods: Leukocytes were isolated from the spleen of NSG-UC mice and subjected to flow cytometric analysis. RT-PCR and RNAseq analysis were performed from distal parts of the colon. Based on these analyses and the effects of interleukins, chemokines and growth factors described in the literature, a disease network was designed. To validate the disease network the effect of infliximab and pitrakinra was tested in the NSG-UC model. A clinical- and histological score, frequencies of human leukocytes isolated from spleen and mRNA expression levels from distal parts of the colon were determined.
Results: Analysis of leukocytes isolated from the spleen of challenged NSG-UC mice corroborated CD64, CD163 and CD1a expressing CD14+ monocytes, CD1a expressing CD11b+ macrophages and HGF, TARC, IFNγ and TGFß1 mRNA as inflammatory markers. The disease network suggested that a proinflammatory condition elicited by IL-17c and lipids and relayed by cytotoxic T-cells, Th17 cells and CD1a expressing macrophages and monocytes. Conversely, the remodeling condition was evoked by IL-34 and TARC and promoted by Th2 cells and M2 monocytes. Mice benefitted from treatment with infliximab as indicated by the histological- and clinical score. As predicted by the disease network infliximab reduced the proinflammatory response by suppressing M1 monocytes and CD1a expressing monocytes and macrophages and decreased levels of IFNγ, TARC and HGF mRNA. As predicted by the disease network inflammation aggravated in the presence of pitrakinra as indicated by the clinical and histological score, elevated frequencies of CD1a expressing macrophages and TNFα and IFNγ mRNA levels.
Conclusions: The combination of the disease network and the NSG-UC animal model might be developed into a powerful tool to predict efficacy or in-efficacy and potential mechanistic side effects.
High resolution Fourier transform mass spectrometry (HRFTMS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy were employed as complementary metabolomic tools to dereplicate the chemical profile of the new and antitrypanosomally active sponge-associated bacterium Actinokineospora sp. EG49 extract. Principal Component (PCA), hierarchical clustering (HCA), and orthogonal partial least square-discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) were used to evaluate the HRFTMS and NMR data of crude extracts from four different fermentation approaches. Statistical analysis identified the best culture one-strain-many-compounds (OSMAC) condition and extraction procedure, which was used for the isolation of novel bioactive metabolites. As a result, two new O-glycosylated angucyclines, named actinosporins A (1) and B (2), were isolated from the broth culture of Actinokineospora sp. strain EG49, which was cultivated from the Red Sea sponge Spheciospongia vagabunda. The structures of actinosporins A and B were determined by 1D- and 2D-NMR techniques, as well as high resolution tandem mass spectrometry. Testing for antiparasitic properties showed that actinosporin A exhibited activity against Trypanosoma brucei brucei with an IC₅₀ value of 15 µM; however no activity was detected against Leishmania major and Plasmodium falciparum, therefore suggesting its selectivity against the parasite Trypanosoma brucei brucei; the causative agent of sleeping sickness.
A newly developed compact measuring system for assessment of transmittance changes in the near-infrared spectral region is described; it allows deconvolution of redox changes due to ferredoxin (Fd), P700, and plastocyanin (PC) in intact leaves. In addition, it can also simultaneously measure chlorophyll fluorescence. The major opto-electronic components as well as the principles of data acquisition and signal deconvolution are outlined. Four original pulse-modulated dual-wavelength difference signals are measured (785-840 nm, 810-870 nm, 870-970 nm, and 795-970 nm). Deconvolution is based on specific spectral information presented graphically in the form of 'Differential Model Plots' (DMP) of Fd, P700, and PC that are derived empirically from selective changes of these three components under appropriately chosen physiological conditions. Whereas information on maximal changes of Fd is obtained upon illumination after dark-acclimation, maximal changes of P700 and PC can be readily induced by saturating light pulses in the presence of far-red light. Using the information of DMP and maximal changes, the new measuring system enables on-line deconvolution of Fd, P700, and PC. The performance of the new device is demonstrated by some examples of practical applications, including fast measurements of flash relaxation kinetics and of the Fd, P700, and PC changes paralleling the polyphasic fluorescence rise upon application of a 300-ms pulse of saturating light.
The phytohormone auxin performs important functions in the initiation of plant tissues and organs, as well as in the control of root growth in conjunction with external stimuli such as gravity, water and nutrient availability. These functions are based primarily on the auxin-dependent regulation of cell division and elongation. Important for the latter is the control of the cell turgor by the vacuole. As storage for nutrients, metabolites and toxins, vacuoles are of vital importance. Vacuolar stored metabolites and ions are exchanged across the vacuolar membrane with the cytoplasm via active transport processes as well as passively through ion channels. In their function as second messenger, calcium ions are important regulators but also subject to vacuolar transport processes. Changes in the cytosolic calcium concentration not only act locally, but are also associated with signal transduction over longer distances. In this work, electrophysiological methods were combined with imaging techniques to gain insights into the interaction between cytosolic calcium signals, vacuolar transport processes and auxin physiology in the intact plant organism.
Calcium signals are involved in the regulation of vacuolar ion channels and transporters. In order to investigate this in the intact organism, intracellular microelectrode measurements were performed in the model system of bulging Arabidopsis thaliana root hairs. By means of the two-electrode voltage-clamp technique, it could be confirmed that the vacuolar membrane is the limiting electrical resistance during intravacuolar measurements and thus measured ion currents actually represent only the currents across the vacuolar membrane. The already known time-dependent decrease of vacuolar conductivity during intravacuolar experiments could be further correlated with an impalement-related, transient increase of the cytosolic calcium concentration. Intravacuolar voltage-clamp experiments in root hair cells of calcium reporter plants confirmed this relationship between vacuolar conductivity and the cytosolic calcium concentration.
However, the vacuole is not just a recipient of cytosolic calcium signals. Since the vacuole represents the largest intracellular calcium reservoir, it has long been argued that it is also involved in the generation of such signals. This could be confirmed in intact root hair cells. Changes in the vacuolar membrane potential affected the cytosolic calcium concentration in these cells. While depolarizing potentials led to an increase of the cytosolic calcium concentration, hyperpolarization of the vacuolar membrane caused the opposite. Thermodynamic considerations of passive and active calcium transport across the vacuolar membrane suggested that the results described herein reflect the behaviour of vacuolar H+/Ca2+ exchangers whose activity is determined by the proton motive force.
In addition, cytosolic calcium has been shown to be a key regulator of a rapid auxin-induced signaling pathway that regulates polar transport of the hormone.
In the same model system of bulging root hairs it could be shown that the external application of auxin results in a very fast, auxin concentration- and pH-dependent depolarization of the plasma membrane potential. Synchronous with the depolarization of the plasma membrane potential, transient calcium signals were recorded in the cytosol. These were caused by an auxin-activated influx of calcium ions through the ion channel CNGC14. Experiments on loss-of-function mutants as well as pharmacological experiments showed that the auxin-induced activation of the calcium channel requires auxin-perception by the F-box proteins of the TIR1/AFB family.
Investigations of auxin-dependent depolarization as well as the auxin-induced influx of protons into epidermal root cells of loss-of-function mutants showed that the secondary active uptake of auxin by the high-affinity transport protein AUX1 is responsible for the rapid depolarization
Not only the cytosolic calcium signals correlated with CNGC14 function, but also the AUX1-mediated depolarization of root hairs. An unchanged expression of AUX1 in the cngc14 loss-of-function mutant suggested that the activity of AUX1 must be post-translationally regulated. This hypothesis was supported by experiments in which treatment with the calcium channel blocker lanthanum led to inactivation of AUX1 in the wild type.
The cytosolic loading of individual epidermal root cells with auxin resulted in the spread of lateral and acropetal calcium waves. These correlated with a shift of the auxin gradient at the root apex and thus supported a hypothetical calcium-dependent regulation of polar auxin transport. A model for a rapid, auxin-induced and calcium-dependent signaling pathway is presented and its importance for gravitropic root growth is discussed. Since AUX1-mediated depolarization varied with external phosphate concentration, the importance of this rapid signaling pathway is also discussed for the adaptation of root hair growth to an inadequate availability of phosphate.
Thylakoid and cytoplasmic membranes of the cyanobacterium Syncchocystis sp. PCC 6803 were purified by sucrose gradient centrifugation. Both membranes oxidize NADH in a rotenone-sensitive reaction. Antibodies prepared against psbG/ndhKand ndhJ fusion proteins detect the corresponding polypeptides in both membrane preparations. This demonstrates that a NADH-dehydrogenase, homologous to the mitochondrial NADHubiquinone-oxidoreductase (complex I of the respiratory chain) is present in cyanobacteria, The NADH-dehydrogenase can be solubilized with the detergent /-D-dodecylmaltoside. Sedimentation analysis of the solubilized enzyme on a sucrose gradient indicates that it is a multisubunit protein complex.
Cuticular waxes cover all above-ground growing parts of plants. They provide the outermost contact zone between plants and their environment and play a pivotal role in limiting transpirational water loss across the plant surface. The complex mechanisms in cuticular wax biosynthesis conferring proper barrier function still remain to be elucidated. The present study focuses on biosynthetic pathways in wax formation, cuticular wax accumulation and composition and its impact on the epidermal barrier property of the intact system of the astomatous tomato fruit (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.). Fruits of all developmental stages of the wild type cultivar MicroTom and its lecer6 mutant defective in a β-ketoacyl-CoA synthase involved in very-long-chain fatty acid elongation were analyzed. This 'reverse genetic' approach clarified the importance of the β-ketoacyl-CoA synthase LeCER6 for epidermal barrier property in vivo on the biochemical-analytical level, on the transcriptional level and, furthermore, on the physiological level comparatively between MicroTom wild type and MicroTom lecer6. Surfaces of MicroTom wild type and MicroTom lecer6 fruits showed similar patterns of quantitative wax accumulation, but differed considerably in the permeance for water. Qualitative analyses of the chemical composition of fruit cuticular waxes in the course of fruit development revealed the meaning of the β-ketoacyl-CoA synthase deficiency in the lecer6 mutant. Fruits of this mutant exhibited a distinct decrease in the proportion of n-alkanes of chain lengths > C28. Moreover, a concomitant increase in pentacyclic triterpenoids became discernible in the mature green fruit stage of the mutant. Since quantitative changes of the cutin matrix were not sufficient to affect transpiration barrier properties of the lecer6 mutant presumably the shift in cuticular wax biosynthesis of the lecer6 mutant is responsible for the observed increase of water permeance. In order to investigate the molecular basis of wax formation, a microarray experiment was established that allows the simultaneous and comprehensive analysis of the timing and abundance of transcriptional changes in MicroTom wild type and MicroTom lecer6. This microarray consists of 167 oligonucleotides corresponding to EST and gene sequences of tomato potentially participating in wax biosynthesis, wax modification, transport processes and stress responsiveness. These parameters were correlated with the course of fruit development. This comparison of gene expression patterns showed a variety of differential expressed transcripts encoding for example lipid transfer proteins and the dehydrin TAS14. On the basis of these findings, it can be proposed that diverse regulatory mechanisms like lipid transfer processes or osmotic stress response are affected by the LeCER6 deficiency, which is primarily accompanied by an impaired water barrier property of the fruit cuticle. This present study correlates the continuous increase of LeCer6 gene expression and the accumulation of very-long-chain n-alkanes within the cuticular waxes during the transition from the immature green to the early breaker fruit phase displaying a developmental regulation of the cuticular wax biosynthesis. Organ-specific wax biosynthesis resulted in different cuticular wax pattern in tomato fruits and leaves. Moreover, in contrast to the fruits, LeCER6-deficient leaves showed a significantly reduced wax accumulation, mainly due to a decrease of n-alkanes with chain lengths > C30, while the proportion of pentacyclic triterpenoids were not affected. Deduced from these biochemical-analytical data on tomato fruits and leaves LeCER6 was characterized as a key enzyme in VLCFA biosynthetic pathway responsible for cuticular wax accumulation. In silico analysis of the LeCER6 sequence revealed the presence of two putative transmembrane domains in the N-terminal position. In addition, highly conserved configurations of catalytic residues in the active site of the enzyme were observed, which are probably essential to its overall structure and function in the fatty acid elongation process. High sequence homology of LeCER6 to the very-long-chain condensing enzymes GhCER6 of Gossypium hirsutum L. and AtCER6 of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. was found, which might be a good evidence for similar biochemical functions. Apart from developmental regulation of the cuticular wax biosynthesis, environmental factors influenced the cuticular wax coverage of tomato fruits. Mechanical removal of epicuticular fruit wax evoked large-scale modifications of the quantitative and qualitative wax composition, such as a reduction of aliphatic wax components, and therewith affected the cuticular water permeability. A subsequent regeneration event was included in the regular wax biosynthesis process and led to the compensation of the detached wax amounts and increased the water barrier properties of the cuticular membrane again. In contrast, water-limited conditions had only minor impact on alterations in cuticular wax biosynthesis and, consequently, on the permeance for water of tomato fruits. Floral organ fusion and conditional sterility, as observed in this study, are caused as pleiotropic effects in cell-cell signaling by the loss-of-function mutation in LeCER6. These findings corroborated the functional impact of LeCER6 on the epidermal integrity and are consistent with the current knowledge on eceriferum mutants of Arabidopsis. Investigations of phenotypic and biochemical characteristics of tomato fruits allowed a broader system-orientated perspective of the fruit development of MicroTom wild type and its lecer6 mutant. These analyses highlight more precisely alterations in the fruit surface area, fresh and dry weight, epidermal cell density, photosynthetic activity or glucose content in the course of fruit development. The differences between MicroTom wild type and MicroTom lecer6 characterize very well the large-scale consequences of the LeCER6 deficiency on the physiological status of tomato fruits. Moreover, the results clearly show a part of the genetic controlled network that governs tomato fruit metabolism and mediates extensive changes of the tomato fruit life cycle. The analyses of the stem scar tissue of the tomato fruit revealed a complex set of responses caused by the harvesting process in detail. Throughout storage of the tomato fruits barrier properties were attributed to the suberized stem scar tissue in regard to water loss limitation and reduction of the fungal infection rate. Thereby the endogenous level of abscisic acid was found to be involved in the molecular signaling pathway that regulates the de novo formation of this tissue. For the first time, the chemical composition and physiological importance could be correlated with molecular changes at the transcriptional level during suberization of the stem scar of tomato fruits. In conclusion, this work indicates a novel intact model system for an integrative functional approach for plant barrier properties that was successfully established and carefully studied. The results highlight correlations between wax biosynthesis, distribution of cuticular waxes, and its relevance on the transpirational water loss across the plant surface and, thus, promote the global understanding of plant cuticle biology.