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Transgene Mausmodelle zur Charakterisierung der Funktion kardialer beta-adrenerger Rezeptoren
(2001)
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Funktion kardialer beta-adrenerger Rezeptoren mit Hilfe einer Kombination aus transgenen Mausmodellen und physiologischen und molekularbiologischen Methoden untersucht. Durch gezielte Überexpression des humanen beta1-adrenergen Rezeptors im Herzen transgener Mäuse konnte gezeigt werden, daß die chronische Aktivierung dieses Rezeptors eine trophische Wirkung auf die Herzmuskelzellen hat. Über einen Zeitraum von mehreren Monaten führte dies zur Entwicklung einer Herzinsuffizienz. In der menschlichen Herzinsuffizienz kommt es zu einem ähnlichen Phänomen: Durch deutlich erhöhte Freisetzung von endogenen Katecholaminen kommt es zu einer chronischen Dauerstimulation kardialer beta1-adrenerger Rezeptoren. Daß diese schädlich ist belegen das hier beschriebene Mausmodell und zudem einige neuere klinische Studien, die zeigen daß eine pharmakologische Blockade beta-adrenerger Rezeptoren zu einer Verminderung der Herzinsuffizienzmortalität führt. Dieses Mausmodell erlaubte es erstmals den beta1-adrenergen Rezeptor hinsichtlich seiner spontanen Rezeptoraktivität in einem physiologischen Modell zu untersuchen. Dabei zeigte sich, daß der humane beta1-adrenerge Rezeptor spontane Aktivität aufweist, jedoch in einem deutlich geringeren Ausmaß als der beta2-adrenerge Rezeptor. Dies könnte klinisch relevant sein, da klinisch verwendete beta-Rezeptor-Antagonisten die spontane Aktivität des beta1-adrenergen Rezeptors in unserem Modell unterschiedlich stark unterdrückten. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde zudem untersucht, ob sich die beiden kardial exprimierten Beta-Rezeptor-Subtypen Beta1 und Beta2 hinsichtlich ihrer Signaltransduktion unterscheiden. Ausgehend von dem Befund, daß die chronische Aktivierung der beiden Subtypen in transgenen Mausmodellen zu deutlich unterschiedlichen Phänotypen führt, wurden verschiedene intrazelluläre Signalwege auf ihre Aktivierung hin überprüft. Abweichend von publizierten, in vitro nach kurzzeitiger Rezeptorstimulation erhobenen Daten zeigte sich, daß die chronische Aktivierung der Rezeptorsubtypen zu einer unterschiedlichen Aktivierung der kardialen MAP-kinasen (ERK) führt. Die beta1-spezifische Aktivierung dieser Kinasen könnte die beobachtete unterschiedliche Hypertrophieentwicklung in diesen beiden Mausmodellen erklären. Einen weiteren Schwerpunkt bei der Aufklärung des Mechanismus beta-adrenerg induzierter Hypertrophie bildete die Untersuchung der zellulären Calcium-homöostase. Als früheste funktionelle Veränderung in der Entwicklung einer beta-adrenerg induzierten Herzhypertrophie und -insuffizienz trat dabei eine Störung des intrazellulären Calciumtransienten auf. Als möglicher Mechanismus für die Störung des Calciumhaushalts konnte eine zeitgleich auftretende veränderte Expression des Calcium-regulierenden Proteins Junctin beschrieben werden. Einen neuen therapeutischen Ansatz für die Therapie der Herzinsuffizienz könnten schließlich vielleicht die Untersuchungen zum kardialen Na/H-austauscher ergeben: Es konnte erstmals gezeigt werden, daß der kardiale Na/H-Austauscher maßgeblich an der beta-adrenerg induzierten Herzhypertrophie- und Fibrose-entstehung beteiligt ist und daß die pharmakologische Inhibition dieses Proteins sowohl Hypertrophie als auch die Fibrose wirksam unterdrücken kann.
Phytohormone, insbesondere solche mit östrogenem Potential werden heute vermehrt in der postklimakterischen Hormonersatztherapie als natürliche Alternative zu Designeröstrogenen eingesetzt, da sie vermutlich ein besseres Wirkungs-Nebenwirkungsprofil besitzten. Mengenmäßig am bedeutensten sind die Phytoöstrogene aus den Stoffgruppen der Isoflavone, Cumestane und Indol-3-carbinole. Weit über 100 Pflanzen produzieren Phytohormone. Die bekanntesten sind die Sojabohne, Weintrauben, Leinsamen, Haferflocken, Spargel, Traubensilberkerze und roter Klee. Phytohormone können täglich in großer Menge aufgenommen werden (1mg pro kg Körpergewicht), wobei durchaus Plasmaspiegel von über 1µM erreicht werden. Gerade deshalb darf nicht davon ausgegangen werden, daß natürliche Produkte per se gut für die Gesundheit wären. Phytohormone und insbesondere deren Metaboliten, die während der intestinalen Passage entstehen, wurden vielfach nicht den gleichen Prüfbedingungen unterzogen wie sie für andere in Lebensmitteln vorkommenden Substanzen, wie z.B. Konservierungs-, Farb- oder Aromastoffen, heute selbstverständlich ist. Diese Arbeit soll deshalb anhand von in-vitro Tests an Mauslymphomzellen L5178Y für eine Auswahl an Phytohormonen und deren Metaboliten mögliche toxische oder gentoxische Effekte detektieren und die bestehende Datenlage ergänzen. Aus der Gruppe der Isoflavone wurden die Daidzeinmetaboloiten Equol und O-desmethylangolensin und die Glyceteinmetaboliten 3,4,7- und 4,6,7-Trihyroxyisoflavon untersucht. Aus der Gruppe der Flavone wurde Fisetin und aus der Gruppe der Stilbene Resveratrol untersucht. Weiterhin wurden Daten zu den Anthocyanen Delphinidin-, Pelargonidin- und Cyanidin-Chlorid erhoben. Toxische Effekte wurden anhand von Proliferatiosexperimenten, durch die Bestimmung der Zellvitalität (Ethidiumbromid-Flouresceinmethode) und durch die Analyse der Teilungsaktivität nach Behandlung mit Cytocalasin B und anschließender Bestimmung des Anteils mehrkerniger Zellen detektiert. Zur Bestimmung von gentoxischen Effekte wurde auf den Mikrokerntest zurückgegriffen. Ergänzend sollte eine Immunfloureszenzfärbung der Kinetochorproteine in Mikrokernen Aufschluß über aneugene oder klastogene Wirksamkeit der untersuchten Substanzen geben. Die in dieser Arbeit gewonnenen Daten weisen darauf hin, daß erste adverse Effekte der Phytohormone oder deren Metaboliten im Bereich der erreichbaren Plasmakonzentration liegen, so daß eine übertriebene Aufnahme hochdosierter Phytohormonen derzeit als kritisch erachtet und weiterer Forschungsbedarf festgestellt werden muß.
In patients suffering from end-stage renal disease who are treated by hemodialysis genomic damage as well as cancer incidence is elevated. One possible cause for the increased genomic damage could be the accumulation of genotoxic substances in the blood of patients. Two possible sources for those toxins have to be considered. The first possibility is that substances from dialysers, the blood tubing system or even contaminated dialysis solutions may leach into the blood of the patients during dialysis. Secondly, the loss of renal filtration leads to an accumulation of substances which are normally excreted by the kidney. If those substances possess toxic potential, they are called uremic toxins. Several of these uremic toxins are potentially genotoxic. Within this thesis several exemplary uremic toxins have been tested for genotoxic effects (homocysteine, homocysteine-thiolactone,leptine, advanced glycated end-products). Additionally, it was analysed whether substances are leaching from dialysers or blood tubing and whether they cause effects in in vitrotoxicity testing. The focus of chemical analytisis was on bisphenol A (BPA), the main component of plastics used in dialysers and dialyser membranes.
Decamethylcyclopentasiloxane (D5) is a cyclic siloxane used in the formulation of consumer products as well as an industrial intermediate. A summary of the previous studies on the toxicology of D5 is provided. Toxicokinetic studies with D5 after dermal administration demonstrate a very low uptake of due to rapid evaporation. Following inhalation exposure, exhalation of unchanged D5 and excretion of metabolites with urine are major pathways for clearance in mammals. Due to this rapid clearance by exhalation, the potential for bioaccumulation of D5 is considered unlikely. The available toxicity data on D5 adequately cover the relevant endpoints regarding potential human health hazards. D5 was not DNA reactive or mutagenic in standard in vitro and in vivo test systems. D5 also did not induce developmental and reproductive toxicity in appropriately performed studies. In repeated studies in rats with subacute, subchronic and chronic inhalation exposure, mild effects on the respiratory tract typically seen after inhalation of irritating materials, increases in liver weight (28- and 90-day inhalation studies), and a small increase in the incidence of uterine adenocarcinoma (uterine tumor) in female rats (two-year inhalation chronic bioassay) were observed. The liver effects induced by D5 were consistent with D5 as a weak "phenobarbital-like" inducer of xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes and these effects are considered to be an adaptive response. Mechanistic studies to elucidate the mode-of-action for uterine tumor induction suggest an interaction of D5 with dopamine signal transduction pathways altering the pituitary control of the estrus cycle. The resulting estrogen imbalance may cause the small increase in uterine tumor incidence at the highest D5-exposure concentration over that seen in control rats. A genotoxic mechanism or a direct endocrine activity of D5 is not supported as a mode-of-action to account for the induction of uterine tumors by the available data.
Azoles are important chemicals used as antifungal agents in agriculture and human medicine, but also as cytostatic drugs in tumour chemotherapy. Antifungal activities are based on inhibition of lanosterol-14α-demethylase (CYP51). CYP51 catalyses the oxidative removal of the methyl group # 32 of lanosterol to produce follicular fluid meiosis activating steroid (FF-MAS). For fungi the later resulting ergosterol is an essential compound of the cell membrane. Exposed fungi lack ergosterol, which leads to a collapse of the cell membrane. In mammals cholesterol, the downstream product of lanosterol-14α-demethylation necessary for the synthesis of bile acids, mineral corticoids, glucocorticoids and sex steroids, can be supplemented with food intake. However FF-MAS and the resulting T-MAS (testis meiosis activating steroids), the direct products of the CYP51 reaction, act as meiosis-activating steroids on ovaries and testes and are not supplemented with food intake. Inhibition of CYP51 in humans may therefore affect the endocrine system and is an unwanted side effect of azoles. Aromatase (CYP19) catalyses the demethylation of testosterone to estradiol and is inhibited by azoles. Reduction of estrogen levels by CYP19 inhibition is the working principle of cytostatic drugs used in breast cancer therapy but is considered an unwanted side effect for azoles used to treat fungal infections. A favourable fungicide or antifungal drug should be a strong inhibitor of fungal CYP51. In contrast human CYP51 and human CYP19 should not be inhibited by an azole fungicide or antifungal agent. The favourable cytostatic drug should show a high potency towards human CYP19. Neither human CYP51 nor fungal CYP51 should be inhibited by a cytostatic drug. The aim of this work was to assess: are fungicides and antifungal drugs strong inhibitors of fungal CYP51? In return do they not inhibit human CYP51 and human CYP19? Do cytostatic drugs strongly inhibit human CYP19? And in return do they not inhibit human CYP51 or fungal CYP51? Inhibitory potencies of 22 azole compounds used for the three purposes were tested in four inhibition assays: i) on commercially available human CYP19 utilising a fluorescent pseudo substrate dibenzylfluorescein (DBF) ii) on CYP19 utilising testosterone as substrate iii) on human CYP51 and iv) Candida albicans CYP51 utilising lanosterol as substrate. Product formation was measured by liquid chromatography – tandem mass spectrometry utilising photospray ionisation (APPI). A functional human CYP51 was available from BD Gentest Cooperation. A functional enzyme complex comprising of the Candida albicans lanosterol-14α-demethylase and the Candida tropicalis oxidoreductase was expressed in the baculovirus system. When comparing inhibitory potencies on CYP19, human CYP51 and Candida albicans CYP51 a number of agents show desirable patterns of inhibition e.g. the two cytostatic drugs, or two antifungal agents used in human medicine, fluconazole and itraconazole, and a wide variety of the fungicides, e.g. cyproconazole and hexaconazole. Undesirable patterns of inhibition were exhibited by a number of compounds, e.g. prochloraz, bifonazole, ketoconazole and miconazole. Seven compounds show a more complex picture of inhibitory potencies though. To get a picture of residue levels of azoles in food in a model case an LC-ESI-MS/MS method was developed for the determination of azole compounds in wine. All residues were below the maximum residue levels set by authorities. To classify the inhibitory potencies on the different enzyme systems IC50 values obtained were compared to exposure levels measured in farmers, maximum plasma concentrations in humans reported after exposure to antifungal drugs and to acceptable daily intake levels set by authorities. Based on the findings presented, the following conclusions can be drawn. The risk for agricultural workers set by exposure to azole fungicides with respect to human CYP51 and CYP19 can be regarded as negligible when safety measures are adhered to. As a matter of principle however, the usage of bifonazole, miconazole and ketoconazole has to be viewed with caution in respect to the high level of inhibition of human CYP51 and/or CYP19. Under the assumption that the acceptable daily intake amounts set by authorities for azole compounds are not exceeded the residues do not pose a threat to consumer safety judged by our findings. Inhibition of CYP19 with the consequence of a reduction of estradiol levels has to be regarded as a possible disrupting effect of the hormone balance. The relevance of FF-MAS and T-MAS in the endocrine system however still has to be evaluated completely bringing with it the question of how much importance has to be attached to the inhibition of human CYP51.
The biotransformation of 1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane was investigated in rats and in in vitro systems. First, the metabolites were identified in vivo using GC/MS and 19F NMR analysis. The main metabolite was identified as trifluoroacetic acid, the minor metabolite as 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid and as a cleavage product, inorganic fluoride was found. As the in vitro system, liver microsomes from rat and human samples and rat liver homogenates were used. Trifluoroacetic acid and 3,3,3 trifluoropropionic acid were confirmed in vitro as metabolic intermediates, following biotransformation of 1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane by the cytochrome P-450-system. Studies, designed for clarifying the cardiotoxicity of 1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane were driven by the hypothesis that 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid is the toxic agent. This was based on the lethal toxicity, which was observed in previous in vivo experiments. In addition, the point of its structural similarity to toxic agents as for example monofluoroacetic acid or of possible metabolic intermediates like difluoroacrylic acid with known toxicity were considered to support this assumption. However, trifluoroacetic acid was neglected as the sought-after toxic agent because of its different toxic effects, known from literature. Investigations on the biotransformation of 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid were performed and resulted in no metabolic activity and in poor elimination of 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid in vivo. The histopathological effects on the heart, which were observed in the 90-day oral toxicity study of 1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane in rats, namely mononuclear inflammatory cell infiltrations and degenerated myocardial fibers, were not observed after a 28 day repeated exposure of up to 10 mg/kg b.w. of 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid. However, a single high dose of 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid lead to severe toxicological effects. The difference in the observed toxic effects after a single and repeated administration may be due to adaptive mechanisms in rats. The toxicological effects included clinical signs like ataxia, coma and cramps. The conditions of the rats suggested possible inhibition of the energy supply to the organism. Furthermore, the interference of 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid in the functionality of the organism was investigated. Experiments were performed in vitro in rat liver and heart mitochondria to investigate effects on the mitochondrial ß-oxidation. However, the transformation of the substrate [U14C] palmitic acid in the ß oxidation pathway was not inhibited by 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid. In addition, no cytotoxicity of 3,3,3 trifluoropropionic acid was observed in the cell culture systems. The main effect after a single dose of 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid was seen in clinical pathology and metabonomic analysis. The decrease in blood glucose is considered to have the most far-reaching consequences for the toxicity of 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid. If considering this change as the primary effect after a single dose, secondary effects, for example, the above-mentioned clinical signs could be explained. In addition, the observed high level of ketone bodies might have been responsible for life-threatening possible ketoacidosis. In general, ketoacidosis occurs after an imbalance between glycolysis, lipolysis, TCA cycle activity and respiratory function. Based on the results, ß-oxidation of fatty acids was not affected, and due to the decrease in glucose levels and the high levels of acetyl CoA, glycolysis was considered not to be impaired. Increased amounts of acetyl CoA might be a result of insufficient activity of the TCA cycle. However, the inhibition of the TCA cycle can be based on the impairment of specific enzymes and/or on the involvement of messenger substrates like insulin. Supporting the first mentioned aspect are decreased levels of TCA cycle intermediates, like α-ketoglutarate or citrate, as seen in 1H-NMR spectra of urine. However, the second aspect would explain the drop in blood glucose with the impairment of glucose transporters or the impairment of the insulin balance. If a single dose of 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid had stimulated the insulin release, glycolysis would be activated, and high amounts of acetyl CoA would be produced. In case of impaired use by the TCA cycle, levels of ketone bodies would be increased. Experiments were designed to characterize the direct effect of 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid on rat insulinoma-derived INS-1 cells as possible increase in insulin release. Further investigations are necessary to answer in which step of the metabolic pathway 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid interferes or finally which specific enzyme is inhibited or activated by 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid, leading to the drop in blood glucose and finally in lethal toxicity.
Aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase (AHH) has been measured in male rat Jiver nucJei and microsomes after treatment of adult animals with various inducers for up to 14 days. After daily i.p. injections of 3-methylcholanthrene (MC, 20 mg/kg) the nuclear activity increased to a maximum of 600 per cent of the control activity after 4 days whereas the microsomal activity was 400 per cent of control at the same date. After 12 days, both activities equilibrated at 400 per cent. A similar time course was found after a single i.p. injection of 2,3,7,8-tetrachloro-dibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD, 0.01 mg/kg) with an induction to .500 and 300 per cent for nuclei and microsomes, respectiveJy. after 2 days, and to 400 per cent for both after 12 days. PhenobarbitaJ (PB) was given continuously in the drinking water (I g/1) and induced the microsomal activity to 200 per cent after 8 days and 170 per cent after 14 days. The nuclear activity was only slightly induced to a constant Ievei of 130 per cent between day 8 and 14. Dieldrin did not significantly increase the microsomal activity after daiJy i.p. injections (20 mg/kg), but the nuclear activity raised to 200 per cent after 3 days and levelled down tocontrol valuesafter 12 days. Other inducers tested were benz[a)anthracene (BA), hexachlorobenzene (HCB} and 1,1.1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDT). The induction pattern with BA was similar tothat of MC, a modeJ compound for the group of cytochrome P448 inducers. The induction by HCB and DDT resembled that by PB. a typical cytochrome P450 inducer.
Anxiety and depressive disorders result from a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors and are common mutual comorbidities. On the level of cellular signaling, regulator of G protein signaling 2 (Rgs2) has been implicated in human and rodent anxiety as well as rodent depression. Rgs2 negatively regulates G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling by acting as a GTPase accelerating protein towards the Gα subunit.
The present study investigates, whether mice with a homozygous Rgs2 deletion (Rgs2-/-) show behavioral alterations as well as an increased susceptibility to stressful life events related to human anxiety and depressive disorders and tries to elucidate molecular underlying’s of these changes.
To this end, Rgs2-/- mice were characterized in an aversive-associative learning paradigm to evaluate learned fear as a model for the etiology of human anxiety disorders. Spatial learning and reward motivated spatial learning were evaluated to control for learning in non-aversive paradigms. Rgs2 deletion enhanced learning in all three paradigms, rendering increased learning upon deletion of Rgs2 not specific for aversive learning. These data support reports indicating increased long-term potentiation in Rgs2-/- mice and may predict treatment response to conditioning based behavior therapy in patients with polymorphisms associated with reduced RGS2 expression. Previous reports of increased innate anxiety were corroborated in three tests based on the approach-avoidance conflict. Interestingly, Rgs2-/- mice showed novelty-induced hypo-locomotion suggesting neophobia, which may translate to the clinical picture of agoraphobia in humans and reduced RGS2 expression in humans was associated with a higher incidence of panic disorder with agoraphobia. Depression-like behavior was more distinctive in female Rgs2-/- mice. Stress resilience, tested in an acute and a chronic stress paradigm, was also more distinctive in female Rgs2-/- mice, suggesting Rgs2 to contribute to sex specific effects of anxiety disorders and depression.
Rgs2 deletion was associated with GPCR expression changes of the adrenergic, serotonergic, dopaminergic and neuropeptide Y systems in the brain and heart as well as reduced monoaminergic neurotransmitter levels. Furthermore, the expression of two stress-related microRNAs was increased upon Rgs2 deletion. The aversive-associative learning paradigm induced a dynamic Rgs2 expression change. The observed molecular changes may contribute to the anxious and depressed phenotype as well as promote altered stress reactivity, while reflecting an alter basal stress level and a disrupted sympathetic tone. Dynamic Rgs2 expression may mediate changes in GPCR signaling duration during memory formation.
Taken together, Rgs2 deletion promotes increased anxiety-like and depression-like behavior, altered stress reactivity as well as increased cognitive function.
Introduction: Colon cancer is one of the major human malignancies worldwide, and much effort has been applied to understand the process of colon carcinogenesis, as well as the role of potential treatments and co-therapeutical agents against it. A growing body of evidence suggests that the use of fluoxetine (FLX), an antidepressant belonging to the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), may be associated with a reduced colon cancer risk. However, controversial opinions have been published and an identification of the mechanisms of the activity of FLX on colon cells would help in the clarification of this controversy. Objectives: Using several in vitro and in vivo-based methods and analyses, we aimed to verify whether FLX has antioxidant, pro-oxidant or DNA-damaging potential in standard toxicological assays; to check whether and how FLX could prevent and reduce colon preneoplastic lesions; to ascertain whether FLX has any oncostatic potential against colon tumors; and, to investigate whether FLX activity could be comparable with a known and current applied chemotherapeutic agent against colon cancer. Results: FLX did not have any antioxidant potential in our experiments. Although it did not induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation or DNA-damage in fibroblast and colon tumor cell lines, FLX reduced dysplasia and proliferation in two different carcinogen models. Further, a significant decrease in colon stromal reactivity and angiogenesis was found in both carcinogen-induced preneoplasia models. In a xenograft model of colon cancer, FLX shrank tumors, reduced tumor proliferation, arrested cancer cells at the G0/G1 cell-cycle phase, and took ROS generation under control. Such effects were detected together with an intracellular acidification and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential in FLX-treated cells. Modulating mitochondrial respiratory chain, HIF-1 expression and Akt/mTOR signaling pathway, FLX was found to reduce colon tumors similar to the widely used chemotherapeutic agent 5-Fluoracil activity. Conclusion: Our collective data suggest that FLX is a remarkable chemopreventive and oncostatic agent against colon preneoplastic lesions and tumors, acting without DNA-damage or ROS generation.
[\(^3\)H]Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) was synthesized by chlorination of [\(^3\)H]benzene prepared by catalytic tritiation of benzene with tritiated water. The isomers of HCH were separated by adsorption chromatography on silica gel. In order to determine the covalent binding to DNA, [\(^3\)H]HCH was administered to male mice by oral gavage, and liver DNA was isolated via cbromatin. The specific radioactivity of the DNA was nonnalized by the dose administered and expressed in the molar units of the Covalent binding index, CBI = DNA damage/dose = (\(\mu\)mol bound HCH/mol DNA nucleotide)/(mmol HCH administered/kg body weight). CBI values of - 0.2 were found 10 h after the administration of alpha- and gamma-HCH. Enzymatic digestion of the DNA to the nucleosides and h.p.l.c. analysis revealed that - 40% of the radioactivity co-migrated with the natural nucleosides. At elution volumes known to contain the more lipophilic carcinogen-nucleoside adducts, - 10% of the radioactivity could be detected. The remaining 50% of th,e radioactivity eluted with the front, representing a mixture of oligonucleotide- HCH adducts and/or hydrophilic degradation products which were strongly bot not covalently associated with intact DNA. Therefore, a true CBI of 0.02-0.1 must be expected both for alpha- and gamma-HCH. This CBI is by a factor of 10\(^5\) -10\(^6\) below the value found with the strongest DNAbinding carcinogens like aflatoxin B1 or dimethylnitrosamine and is unlikely to be decisive for the liver tumor induction in mice because of the foUowing additional findings: (i) both isomers gave rise to similar Ievels of DNA darnage although the alpha-isomer is a much morepotent tumor inducer. This similarity was seen not only at the time of mäximum binding but up to 10 days after oral administration; (ii) three mouse strains with apparently different susceptibility to tumor induction by gamma-HCH could not be distinguished with respect to DNA binding; (iii) the level of DNA binding of alpha-HCH (CBI = 0.02-0.1) is more than three orders of magnitude lower than would be expected if the mechanism of tumor induction was by genotoxicity mediated by DNAbinding. For a preliminary investigation on a potential stimulatory effect on liver DN A replication and ceU division, [\(^{14}\)]thymidine was admlnistered i.p. 3.5 h before sacrifice of the [\(^3\)H]HCH-treated mice. The alpha-isomer was found to be more potent than the gamma-isomer in this respect. Taken together, our data allow the conclusion that the non- mutational processes must be more important for the carcinogenicity of HCH.
Known mutagens and carcinogens in the dict were compiled and the risk of cancer was estimated on the basis of average exposure Ievels in Switzerland and carcinogenic potencies from rodent bioassays. The analysis showed that, except for a1cohol, the sum of all known dietary carcinogens could only explain a few percent of the cancer deaths attributed by epidemiologists to dietary factors. The discrepancy was explained by a "carcinogenicity" of excess macronutrients. This hypothesis was based on an evaluation of dietary restriction experiments in rats and mice, where a dramatic reducing effect on spontaneaus tumour formation was seen. From these experiments, a "carcinogenic potency" was deduced for food in excess (TD50 approximately 16 g/kg per day). Ovemutrition in Switzerland was converted into excess food intake and the cancer risk estimated on the basis ofthe TD50 value. The resulting risk of60,000 cases per one million lives wou1d aJlow to explain by overnutrition almost all "diet-related" cancer deaths in humans.
Rtgulatory aclio11s Iaken to reduu tht risk of harmfultffects of exposure to chemieals ofltn arenot commensurDtt with the toxicologicDf risk SJsstS&ment. A numbtr of factors relating to psychology, sociology, economics Dntl politics rather than science and medicine afftct tht final decision. Wemer Lutz and colleagues illustratt the situation using tht feuktmia-indudng chtmiCJJI benzene as an examplt.
Modulating key dynamics of plant growth and development, the effects of the plant hormone cytokinin on animal cells gained much attention recently. Most previous studies on cytokinin effects on mammalian cells have been conducted with elevated cytokinin concentration (in the μM range). However, to examine physiologically relevant dose effects of cytokinins on animal cells, we systematically analyzed the impact of kinetin in cultured cells at low and high concentrations (1nM-10μM) and examined cytotoxic and genotoxic conditions. We furthermore measured the intrinsic antioxidant activity of kinetin in a cell-free system using the Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power assay and in cells using the dihydroethidium staining method. Monitoring viability, we looked at kinetin effects in mammalian cells such as HL60 cells, HaCaT human keratinocyte cells, NRK rat epithelial kidney cells and human peripheral lymphocytes. Kinetin manifests no antioxidant activity in the cell free system and high doses of kinetin (500 nM and higher) reduce cell viability and mediate DNA damage in vitro. In contrast, low doses (concentrations up to 100 nM) of kinetin confer protection in cells against oxidative stress. Moreover, our results show that pretreatment of the cells with kinetin significantly reduces 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide mediated reactive oxygen species production. Also, pretreatment with kinetin retains cellular GSH levels when they are also treated with the GSH-depleting agent patulin. Our results explicitly show that low kinetin doses reduce apoptosis and protect cells from oxidative stress mediated cell death. Future studies on the interaction between cytokinins and human cellular pathway targets will be intriguing.
The detection Iimit of the lacl transgenic mouse mutagenicity assay lies, in practice, at approximately a 50-100% increase in mutant frequency in treated animals over controls. The sensitivity of this assay in detecting genotoxins can be markedly improved by subchronic rather than acute application of the test compound. The lac/ transgenic mouse mutagenicity assay was compared quantitatively to rodent carcinogenicity tests and to presently used in vivo mutagenicity assays. With the genotoxic carcinogens tested thus far, a rough correlation between mutagenic potency and carcinogenic potency was observed: on average, to obtain a doubling in lacl mutant frequency the mice bad to be treated with a total dose equal to 50 times the TD50 daily dose Ievel. This total dose could be administered eilher at a high dose rate within a few days or, preferably, at a low dose rate over several weeks. This analysis also indicated that a lacl experiment using a 250-day exposure period would give a detection Iimit approximately equal to that of a long-term carcinogenicity study. In comparison to the micronucleus test or the chromosome aberration assay, acute sturlies with the presently available lacl system offered no increase in sensitivity. However, subchronic lacl sturlies (3-4-month exposure) resulted in an increase in sensitivity over the established tests by 1-2 orders of magnitude (shown with 2-acetylaminofluorene, N-nitrosomethylamine, N-nitrosomethylurea and urethane). 1t is concluded that a positive result in the lacl test can be highly predictive of carcinogenicity butthat a negative result does not provide a large margin of safety.
Desensitization of N-fonnyl peptide chemoattractant receptors (FPR) in human neutrophils is thought to be achieved by lateral segregation of receptors and G proteins within the plane of the plasma membrane resulting in an interruption of the signalling cascade. Direct coupling of FPR to membrane skeletal actin appears to be the basis of this process~ however, the molecular mechanism is unknown. In this study we investigated the effect of energy depletion on formation of FPR-membrane skeleton complexes. In addition the effect of the protein kinase C inhibitor stauroporine and the phosphatase inhibitor okadaic acid on coupling of FPR to the membrane skeletonwas studied. Human neutrophils were desensitized using the photoreactive agonist N-formy1-met-leu-phe-1ys-N'[\(^{125}\)I]2(p-azidosalicylamido)ethyl-1,3'-dithiopropionate (fMLFK-[\(^{125}\)I]ASD) after ATP depletion with NaF or after incubation with the respective inhibitors. The interaction of FPR with the membrane skeleton was studied by Sedimentation of the membrane skeleton-associated receptors in sucrose density gradients. Energy depletion of the cells markedly inhibited the formation of FPR-membrane skeleton complexes. This does not appear tobe related to inhibition of protein phosphorylation due to ATP depletion because inhibition of protein kinases and phosphatases bad no significant effect on coupling of FPR to the membrane skeleton. We conclude, therefore, that coupling of FPR to the membrane skeleton is an energy,dependent process which does not appear to require modification of the receptor protein by phosphorylation.
A new series of pyrazolo[4,3-e][1,2,4]triazolo[1,5-c]pyrimidine (PTP) derivatives has been developed in order to explore their affinity and selectivity profile at the four adenosine receptor subtypes. In particular, the PTP scaffold was conjugated at the C2 position with the 1-(3-trifluoromethyl-benzyl)-1H-pyrazole, a group believed to confer potency and selectivity toward the human (h) A\(_{2B}\) adenosine receptor (AR) to the xanthine ligand 8-(1-(3-(trifluoromethyl) benzyl)-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-1,3-dimethyl-1H-purine-2,6(3H, 7H)-dione (CVT 6975). Interestingly, the synthesized compounds turned out to be inactive at the hA\(_{2B}\) AR but they displayed affinity at the hA\(_3\) AR in the nanomolar range. The best compound of the series (6) shows both high affinity (hA\(_3\) AR K\(_i\) = 11 nM) and selectivity (A\(_1\)/A\(_3\) and A\(_{2A}\)/A\(_3\) > 9090; A\(_{2B}\)/A\(_3\) > 909) at the hA\(_3\) AR. To better rationalize these results, a molecular docking study on the four AR subtypes was performed for all the synthesized compounds. In addition, CTV 6975 and two close analogues have been subjected to the same molecular docking protocol to investigate the role of the 1-(3-trifluoromethyl-benzyl)-1H-pyrazole on the binding at the four ARs.
G protein coupled receptor kinases (GRK) phosphorylate and thereby desensitize G protein coupled receptors (GPCR) including β-adrenergic receptors (βAR), which are critical regulators of cardiac function. We identified the Raf kinase inhibitor protein (RKIP) as an endogenous inhibitor of GRK2 that leads to increased cardiac contractility via βAR activation. RKIP binds to the N-terminus (aa1-185) of GRK2, which is important for the GRK2/receptor interaction. Thereby it interferes with the GRK2/receptor interaction without interference with cytosolic GRK2 target activation. In this project, the RKIP/GRK interface was investigated to develop strategies that simulate the effects of RKIP on βAR.
RKIP binding to different isoforms of GRK expressed in the heart was analyzed by protein interaction assays using full-length and N-termini of GRK2, GRK3 and GRK5: 1-53, 54-185 and 1-185. Co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IPs) and pull-down assays revealed that RKIP binds to the peptides of GRK2 and GRK3 but not to the ones of GRK5, which suggests the existence of several binding sites of RKIP within the N-termini of GRK2 and GRK3. To analyze whether the peptides of GRK2 and GRK3 are able to simulate the RKIP mediated interference of the GRK2/receptor interaction, we analyzed the β2-AR phosphorylation in the absence and presence of the peptides. Interestingly, N-termini (aa1-185) of GRK2 and GRK3 reduced β2AR phosphorylation to a comparable extent as RKIP. In line with reduced receptor phosphorylation, the peptides also reduced isoproterenol-stimulated receptor internalization as shown by [3H] CGP-12177 radioligand binding assay and fluorescence microscopy compared to control cells. Subsequently, these peptides increased downstream signaling of β2AR, i.e. the phosphorylation of the PKA substrate phosducin. In an attempt to elucidate the mechanism behind the observed effects, Co-IPs were performed in order to investigate whether the peptides bind directly to the β2-AR and block its phosphorylation by GRK2. Indeed, GRK2 1-185 and GRK3 1-185 could bind the receptor, suggesting that this way GRK2 is prevented from inhibiting the receptor. To investigate the physiological effect of GRK2 1-185, GRK3 1-185 and GRK5 1-185, their effect on neonatal mouse cardiomyocyte contractility and hypertrophy was analyzed. After long-term isoproterenol stimulation, in the presence of GRK2 1 185 and GRK3 1-185 the cross-sectional area of the cardiomyocytes showed no significant increase in comparison to the unstimulated control cells. In addition, upon isoproterenol stimulation, GRK2 1-185 and GRK3 1-185 increased the beat rate in cardiomyocytes, mimicking RKIP while the base impedance, an indicator of viability, remained stable.
The N-termini (1-185) of GRK2 and GRK3 simulated RKIP’s function and had a significant influence on β2AR phosphorylation, on its downstream signaling and internalization, could bind β2-AR, increased beat rate and did not significantly induce hypertrophy, suggesting that they may serve as a model for the generation of new and more specific targeting strategies for GRK mediated receptor regulation.
A\(_1\) adenosine receptors from different tissues and species we~e photoaffinity labelled and then the carbohydrate content was examined by both enzymatic and chemical treatment. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of the labelled membrane receptors shows that neuraminidase treatment alters the electrophoretic mobility of the receptor band indica ting the presence of terminal neurandnie acids. Neuraminidase digestion does not influence the binding characteristics of the receptor. The totally deglycosylated receptor protein obtained by chemical treatment has an apparent molecular weight Of 32,000.
The EU chemicals strategy for sustainability (CSS) asserts that both human health and the environment are presently threatened and that further regulation is necessary. In a recent Guest Editorial, members of the German competent authority for risk assessment, the BfR, raised concerns about the scientific justification for this strategy. The complexity and interdependence of the networks of regulation of chemical substances have ensured that public health and wellbeing in the EU have continuously improved. A continuous process of improvement in consumer protection is clearly desirable but any initiative directed towards this objective must be based on scientific knowledge. It must not confound risk with other factors in determining policy. This conclusion is fully supported in the present Commentary including the request to improve both, data collection and the time-consuming and bureaucratic procedures that delay the publication of regulations.
ERK1/2 are known key players in the pathophysiology of heart failure, but the members of the ERK cascade, in particular Raf1, can also protect the heart from cell death and ischemic injury. An additional autophosphorylation (ERK1 at Thr208, ERK2 at Thr188) empowers ERK1/2 translocation to the nucleus and phosphorylation of nuclear targets which take part in the development of cardiac hypertrophy. Thereby, targeting this additional phosphorylation is a promising pharmacological approach.
In this thesis, an in silico model of ERK cascade in the cardiomyocyte is introduced. The model is a semi-quantitive model and its behavior was tested with different softwares (SQUAD and CellNetAnalyzer). Different phosphorylation states of ERK1/2 as well as different stimuli can be reproduced. The different types of stimuli include hypertrophic as well as non-hypertrophic stimuli. With the introduced in-silico model time courses and synergistic as well as antagonistic receptor stimuli combinations can be predicted. The simulated time courses were experimentally validated. SQUAD was mainly used to make predictions about time courses and thresholds, whereas CNA was used to analyze steady states and feedback loops.
Furthermore, new targets of ERK1/2 which partially contribute, also in the formation of cardiac hypertrophy, were identified and the most promising of them were illuminated. Important further targets are Caspase 8, GAB2, Mxi-2, SMAD2, FHL2 and SPIN90.
Cardiomyocyte gene expression data sets were analyzed to verify involved components and to find further significantly altered genes after induced hypertrophy with TAC (transverse aortic constriction). Changes in the ultrastructure of the cardiomyocyte are the final result of induced hypertrophy.