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Nearly a quarter of the Alpine area is covered by a dense network of large protected areas (LPAs) of the four categories national park(NP), biosphere reserve (BR), nature park and world natural heritage site (WNHS). From the time of early industrialization, the Alpine area has undergone a mixed and increasingly polarized demographic development between the poles of immigration and emigration. This article investigates the possible mutual impact of population development and the existence of LPAs. The research design includes a quantitative survey of all Alpine LPAs in terms of their population development and the structure of immigration in the first decade of the 21st century. This will be linked with qualitative expert interviews in four selected NPs. The overall results allow an interpretation of the statistical
correlations between type of LPA and migration.
In Germany, as in many Western societies, demographic change will lead to a higher number of senior visitors to natural recreational areas and national parks. Given the high physiological requirements of many outdoor recreation activities, especially in mountain areas, it seems likely that demographic change will affect the spatial behaviour of national park visitors, which may pose a challenge to the management of these areas. With the help of GPS tracking and a standardized questionnaire (n=481), this study empirically investigates the spatial behaviour of demographic age brackets in Berchtesgaden National Park (NP) and the potential effects of demographic change on the use of the area. Cluster analysis revealed four activity types in the study area. More than half of the groups with visitors aged 60 and older belong to the activity type of Walker.
Maize cropping systems mapping using RapidEye observations in agro-ecological landscapes in Kenya
(2017)
Cropping systems information on explicit scales is an important but rarely available variable in many crops modeling routines and of utmost importance for understanding pests and disease propagation mechanisms in agro-ecological landscapes. In this study, high spatial and temporal resolution RapidEye bio-temporal data were utilized within a novel 2-step hierarchical random forest (RF) classification approach to map areas of mono- and mixed maize cropping systems. A small-scale maize farming site in Machakos County, Kenya was used as a study site. Within the study site, field data was collected during the satellite acquisition period on general land use/land cover (LULC) and the two cropping systems. Firstly, non-cropland areas were masked out from other land use/land cover using the LULC mapping result. Subsequently an optimized RF model was applied to the cropland layer to map the two cropping systems (2nd classification step). An overall accuracy of 93% was attained for the LULC classification, while the class accuracies (PA: producer’s accuracy and UA: user’s accuracy) for the two cropping systems were consistently above 85%. We concluded that explicit mapping of different cropping systems is feasible in complex and highly fragmented agro-ecological landscapes if high resolution and multi-temporal satellite data such as 5 m RapidEye data is employed. Further research is needed on the feasibility of using freely available 10–20 m Sentinel-2 data for wide-area assessment of cropping systems as an important variable in numerous crop productivity models.
Accurate and detailed spatial soil information is essential for environmental modelling, risk assessment and decision making. The use of Remote Sensing data as secondary sources of information in digital soil mapping has been found to be cost effective and less time consuming compared to traditional soil mapping approaches. But the potentials of Remote Sensing data in improving knowledge of local scale soil information in West Africa have not been fully explored. This study investigated the use of high spatial resolution satellite data (RapidEye and Landsat), terrain/climatic data and laboratory analysed soil samples to map the spatial distribution of six soil properties–sand, silt, clay, cation exchange capacity (CEC), soil organic carbon (SOC) and nitrogen–in a 580 km2 agricultural watershed in south-western Burkina Faso. Four statistical prediction models–multiple linear regression (MLR), random forest regression (RFR), support vector machine (SVM), stochastic gradient boosting (SGB)–were tested and compared. Internal validation was conducted by cross validation while the predictions were validated against an independent set of soil samples considering the modelling area and an extrapolation area. Model performance statistics revealed that the machine learning techniques performed marginally better than the MLR, with the RFR providing in most cases the highest accuracy. The inability of MLR to handle non-linear relationships between dependent and independent variables was found to be a limitation in accurately predicting soil properties at unsampled locations. Satellite data acquired during ploughing or early crop development stages (e.g. May, June) were found to be the most important spectral predictors while elevation, temperature and precipitation came up as prominent terrain/climatic variables in predicting soil properties. The results further showed that shortwave infrared and near infrared channels of Landsat8 as well as soil specific indices of redness, coloration and saturation were prominent predictors in digital soil mapping. Considering the increased availability of freely available Remote Sensing data (e.g. Landsat, SRTM, Sentinels), soil information at local and regional scales in data poor regions such as West Africa can be improved with relatively little financial and human resources.
Detailed information on the land cover types present and the horizontal position of the land–water interface is needed for sensitive coastal ecosystems throughout the Arctic, both to establish baselines against which the impacts of climate change can be assessed and to inform response operations in the event of environmental emergencies such as oil spills. Previous work has demonstrated potential for accurate classification via fusion of optical and SAR data, though what contribution either makes to model accuracy is not well established, nor is it clear what shorelines can be classified using optical or SAR data alone. In this research, we evaluate the relative value of quad pol RADARSAT-2 and Landsat 5 data for shoreline mapping by individually excluding both datasets from Random Forest models used to classify images acquired over Nunavut, Canada. In anticipation of the RADARSAT Constellation Mission (RCM), we also simulate and evaluate dual and compact polarimetric imagery for shoreline mapping. Results show that SAR data is needed for accurate discrimination of substrates as user’s and producer’s accuracies were 5–24% higher for models constructed with quad pol RADARSAT-2 and DEM data than models constructed with Landsat 5 and DEM data. Models based on simulated RCM and DEM data achieved significantly lower overall accuracies (71–77%) than models based on quad pol RADARSAT-2 and DEM data (80%), with Wetland and Tundra being most adversely affected. When classified together with Landsat 5 and DEM data, however, model accuracy was less affected by the SAR data type, with multiple polarizations and modes achieving independent overall accuracies within a range acceptable for operational mapping, at 89–91%. RCM is expected to contribute positively to ongoing efforts to monitor change and improve emergency preparedness throughout the Arctic.
West African summer monsoon precipitation is characterized by distinct decadal variability. Due to its welldocumented link to oceanic boundary conditions in various ocean basins it represents a paradigm for decadal predictability. In this study, we reappraise this hypothesis for several sub-regions of sub-Saharan West Africa using the new German contribution to the coupled model intercomparison project phase 5 (CMIP5) near-term prediction system.
In addition, we assume that dynamical downscaling of the global decadal predictions leads to an enhanced predictive skill because enhanced resolution improves the atmospheric response to oceanic forcing and landsurface feedbacks. Based on three regional climate models, a heterogeneous picture is drawn: none of the regional climate models outperforms the global decadal predictions or all other regional climate models in every region nor decade. However, for every test case at least one regional climate model was identified which outperforms the global predictions. The highest predictive skill is found in the western and central Sahel Zone with correlation coefficients and mean-square skill scores exceeding 0.9 and 0.8, respectively.
Burkina Faso ranges amongst the fastest growing countries in the world with an annual population growth rate of more than three percent. This trend has consequences for food security since agricultural productivity is still on a comparatively low level in Burkina Faso. In order to compensate for the low productivity, the agricultural areas are expanding quickly. The mapping and monitoring of this expansion is difficult, even on the basis of remote sensing imagery, since the extensive farming practices and frequent cloud coverage in the area make the delineation of cultivated land from other land cover and land use types a challenging task. However, as the rapidly increasing population could have considerable effects on the natural resources and on the regional development of the country, methods for improved mapping of LULCC (land use and land cover change) are needed. For this study, we applied the newly developed ESTARFM (Enhanced Spatial and Temporal Adaptive Reflectance Fusion Model) framework to generate high temporal (8-day) and high spatial (30 m) resolution NDVI time series for all of Burkina Faso for the years 2001, 2007, and 2014. For this purpose, more than 500 Landsat scenes and 3000 MODIS scenes were processed with this automated framework. The generated ESTARFM NDVI time series enabled extraction of per-pixel phenological features that all together served as input for the delineation of agricultural areas via random forest classification at 30 m spatial resolution for entire Burkina Faso and the three years. For training and validation, a randomly sampled reference dataset was generated from Google Earth images and based on expert knowledge. The overall accuracies of 92% (2001), 91% (2007), and 91% (2014) indicate the well-functioning of the applied methodology. The results show an expansion of agricultural area of 91% between 2001 and 2014 to a total of 116,900 km\(^2\). While rainfed agricultural areas account for the major part of this trend, irrigated areas and plantations also increased considerably, primarily promoted by specific development projects. This expansion goes in line with the rapid population growth in most provinces of Burkina Faso where land was still available for an expansion of agricultural area. The analysis of agricultural encroachment into protected areas and their surroundings highlights the increased human pressure on these areas and the challenges of environmental protection for the future.
Past and the projected future climate change in Afghanistan has been analyzed systematically and differentiated with respect to its different climate regions to gain some first quantitative insights into Afghanistan’s vulnerability to ongoing and future climate changes. For this purpose, temperature, precipitation and five additional climate indices for extremes and agriculture assessments (heavy precipitation; spring precipitation; growing season length (GSL), the Heat Wave Magnitude Index (HWMI); and the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI)) from the reanalysis data were examined for their consistency to identify changes in the past (data since 1950). For future changes (up to the year 2100), the same parameters were extracted from an ensemble of 12 downscaled regional climate models (RCM) of the Coordinated Regional Climate Downscaling Experiment (CORDEX)-South Asia simulations for low and high emission scenarios (Representative Concentration Pathways 4.5 and 8.5). In the past, the climatic changes were mainly characterized by a mean temperature increase above global level of 1.8 °C from 1950 to 2010; uncertainty with regard to reanalyzed rainfall data limited a thorough analysis of past changes. Climate models projected the temperature trend to accelerate in the future, depending strongly on the global carbon emissions (2006–2050 Representative Concentration Pathways 4.5/8.5: 1.7/2.3 °C; 2006–2099: 2.7/6.4 °C, respectively). Despite the high uncertainty with regard to precipitation projections, it became apparent that the increasing evapotranspiration is likely to exacerbate Afghanistan’s already existing water stress, including a very strong increase of frequency and magnitude of heat waves. Overall, the results show that in addition to the already extensive deficiency in adaptation to current climate conditions, the situation will be aggravated in the future, particularly in regard to water management and agriculture. Thus, the results of this study underline the importance of adequate adaptation to climate change in Afghanistan. This is even truer taking into account that GSL is projected to increase substantially by around 20 days on average until 2050, which might open the opportunity for extended agricultural husbandry or even additional harvests when water resources are properly managed.
Long-term slash-and-burn experiments, when compared with intensive tillage without manuring, resulted in a huge data set relating to potential crop yields, depending on soil quality, crop type, and agricultural measures. Cultivation without manuring or fallow phases did not produce satisfying yields, and mono-season cropping on freshly cleared and burned plots resulted in rather high yields, comparable to those produced during modern industrial agriculture - at least ten-fold the ones estimated for the medieval period. Continuous cultivation on the same plot, using imported wood from adjacent areas as fuel, causes decreasing yields over several years. The high yield of the first harvest of a slash-and-burn agriculture is caused by nutrient input through the ash produced and mobilization from the organic matter of the topsoil, due to high soil temperatures during the burning process and higher topsoil temperatures due to the soil’s black surface. The harvested crops are pure, without contamination of any weeds. Considering the amount of work required to fight weeds without burning, the slash-and-burn technique yields much better results than any other tested agricultural approach. Therefore, in dense woodland, without optimal soils and climate, slash-and-burn agriculture seems to be the best, if not the only, feasible method to start agriculture, for example, during the Late Neolithic, when agriculture expanded from the loess belt into landscapes less suitable for agriculture. Extensive and cultivation with manuring is more practical in an already-open landscape and with a denser population, but its efficiency in terms of the ratio of the manpower input to food output, is worse. Slash-and-burn agriculture is not only a phenomenon of temperate European agriculture during the Neolithic, but played a major role in land-use in forested regions worldwide, creating anthromes on a huge spatial scale.
Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Untersuchung liegt der Fokus auf der Überprüfung und Weiterentwicklung der Methode der Multiagentensysteme für die Prognosezwecke im Einzelhandel. Die konkrete Zielsetzung der Arbeit ist der Entwurf eines integrativen Systems zur Simulation möglicher Zukunftsszenarien des (räumlichen) Konsumentenverhaltens. Mit Hilfe einer agentenbasierten Modellierung ist es möglich die bisher vorherrschenden Top-Down Ansätze flexibel in ein Bottom-Up Modell zu integrieren. Die wichtigsten strukturprägenden Impulse im Einzelhandelssystem und somit auch auf die Konsumenten gehen aktuell von der Digitalisierung des Verkaufsvorgangs aus. Hierbei wird der „Raum-Zeit-Käfig“ der Kunden ausgeweitet und bestimmte Zwänge der räumlichen und zeitlichen Bindung innerhalb des Kaufprozesses entfallen. Die klassische zeitliche Abfolge des Einkaufsverhaltens wird aufgelöst; Information findet vermehrt digital statt. Vielmehr steht der Produktnutzen im Mittelpunkt, und zugehörige Dienstleistungen wie Information, Service und Logistik werden flexibel kombiniert. Vor diesem Hintergrund stellt die agentenbasierte Simulation einen dynamischen Ansatzpunkt dar, in dem eine Reihe der Defizite tradierter, statischer Methoden Berücksichtigung findet und sich vielfältige Einsatzmöglichkeiten für die Analyse der Wechselwirkungen zwischen Konsumentenverhalten und räumlichen Einzelhandelsstrukturen ergeben. Aufgrund der zunehmenden Digitalisierung des Einkaufsprozesses und den daraus entstehenden Informationen zum Konsumentenverhalten in Kombination mit immer komplexeren Fragestellungen ist in den kommenden Jahren eine verstärkte Dynamik bei der Anwendungshäufigkeit von Multiagentensimulationen in Einzelhandelsunternehmen zu erwarten.
Die Entwicklung des Einzelhandels in Deutschland wird aus struktureller und räumlicher Sicht heute durch mindestens vier signifikante Prozesse geprägt: Erstens erobert der Online-Handel weiterhin Umsatzanteile; seine Bedeutungszunahme betrifft mittlerweile fast alle Sortimente und Standorte. Auch der Lebensmitteleinzelhandel, der lange Zeit vor allem aus logistischen Gründen für den Online-Handel wenig geeignet zu sein schien, verbucht inzwischen deutliche Zuwächse des Online-Geschäfts. Zweitens plagen insbesondere die Zentren kleiner und mittelgroßer Städte vor allem in ländlichen Räumen Umsatzrückgänge. Ihre Krise ist allerdings nicht nur der Konkurrenz durch den Online-Handel geschuldet, sondern hat auch eine Vielzahl anderer Gründe. Drittens zeichnet sich eine Rückeroberung innerstädtischer Zentren durch den Lebensmitteleinzelhandel ab. Dabei sind insbesondere Convenience-Formate von Bedeutung. Und viertens breitet sich der Einzelhandel aktuell verstärkt an „besonderen“ Standorten aus. Hierzu zählen Orte mit einer hohen Verkehrswertigkeit, u. a. Bahnhöfe und Flughäfen, aber auch Factory Outlet Center, die lange Zeit aus politisch-planerischen Gründen blockiert wurden und in Deutschland ein Schattendasein fristeten. Die Beiträge dieses Bandes nähern sich den genannten Entwicklungstendenzen aus der Perspektive neuer konzeptioneller Überlegungen, wobei zum Teil auch innovative methodische Ansätze vorgestellt werden.
In this study, polarimetric Synthetic Aperture Radar (PolSAR) data at X-, C- and L-Bands, acquired by the satellites: TerraSAR-X (2011), Radarsat-2 (2011), ALOS (2010) and ALOS-2 (2016), were used to characterize the tundra land cover of a test site located close to the town of Tuktoyaktuk, NWT, Canada. Using available in situ ground data collected in 2010 and 2012, we investigate PolSAR scattering characteristics of common tundra land cover classes at X-, C- and L-Bands. Several decomposition features of quad-, co-, and cross-polarized data were compared, the correlation between them was investigated, and the class separability offered by their different feature spaces was analyzed. Certain PolSAR features at each wavelength were sensitive to the land cover and exhibited distinct scattering characteristics. Use of shorter wavelength imagery (X and C) was beneficial for the characterization of wetland and tundra vegetation, while L-Band data highlighted differences of the bare ground classes better. The Kennaugh Matrix decomposition applied in this study provided a unified framework to store, process, and analyze all data consistently, and the matrix offered a favorable feature space for class separation. Of all elements of the quad-polarized Kennaugh Matrix, the intensity based elements K0, K1, K2, K3 and K4 were found to be most valuable for class discrimination. These elements contributed to better class separation as indicated by an increase of the separability metrics squared Jefferys Matusita Distance and Transformed Divergence. The increase in separability was up to 57% for Radarsat-2 and up to 18% for ALOS-2 data.
Interactions between different formative processes are reflected in the internal structure of rock glaciers. Therefore, the detection of subsurface conditions can help to enhance our understanding of landform development. For an assessment of subsurface conditions, we present an analysis of the spatial variability of active layer thickness, ground ice content and frost table topography for two different rock glaciers in the Eastern Swiss Alps by means of quasi-3-D electrical resistivity imaging (ERI). This approach enables an extensive mapping of subsurface structures and a spatial overlay between site-specific surface and subsurface characteristics. At Nair rock glacier, we discovered a gradual descent of the frost table in a downslope direction and a constant decrease of ice content which follows the observed surface topography. This is attributed to ice formation by refreezing meltwater from an embedded snow bank or from a subsurface ice patch which reshapes the permafrost layer. The heterogeneous ground ice distribution at Uertsch rock glacier indicates that multiple processes on different time domains were involved in the development. Resistivity values which represent frozen conditions vary within a wide range and indicate a successive formation which includes several advances, past glacial overrides and creep processes on the rock glacier surface. In combination with the observed topography, quasi-3-D ERI enables us to delimit areas of extensive and compressive flow in close proximity. Excellent data quality was provided by a good coupling of electrodes to the ground in the pebbly material of the investigated rock glaciers. Results show the value of the quasi-3-D ERI approach but advise the application of complementary geophysical methods for interpreting the results.
The contact of hot melt with liquid water - called Molten Fuel Coolant Interaction (MFCI) - can result in vivid explosions. Such explosions can occur in different scenarios: in steel or powerplants but also in volcanoes. Because of the possible dramatic consequences of such explosions an investigation of the explosion process is necessary.
Fundamental basics of this process are already discovered and explained, such as the frame conditions for these explosions. It has been shown that energy transfer during an MFCI-process can be very high because of the transfer of thermal energy caused by positive feedback mechanisms.
Up to now the influence of several varying parameters on the energy transfer and the explosions is not yet investigated sufficiently. An important parameter is the melt temperature, because the amount of possibly transferable energy depends on it. The investigation of this influence is the main aim of this work. Therefor metallic tin melt was used, because of its nearly constant thermal material properties in a wide temperature range. With tin melt research in the temperature range from 400 °C up to 1000 °C are
possible.
One important result is the lower temperature limit for vapor film stability in the experiments. For low melt temperatures up to about 600 °C the vapor film is so unstable that it already can collapse before the mechanical trigger. As expected the transferred thermal energy all in all increases with higher temperatures. Although this effect sometimes is superposed by other influences such as the premix of melt and water, the result is confirmed after a consequent filtering of the remaining influences. This trend is not only recognizable in the amount of transferred energy, but also in the fragmentation of melt or the vaporizing water. But also the other influences on MFCI-explosions showed interesting results in the frame of this work. To perform the experiments the installation and preparation of the experimental Setup in the laboratory were necessary.
In order to compare the results to volcanism and to get a better investigation of the brittle fragmentation
of melt additional runs with magmatic melt were made. In the results the thermal power during energy transfer could be estimated. Furthermore the model of “cooling fragments “ could be usefully applied.
In the 1960s, when most African nations gained their independence after the age of colonialism, several theories and strategies emerged with the goal of "developing" these apparently "underdeveloped" territories. One of the most influential approaches for this task was represented in Julius K. Nyerere´s idea of Ujamaa, the Tanzanian version of African socialism.
Even before the Arusha Declaration established Ujamaa as a national development strategy in 1967, several groups of politicized young farmers took to the empty countryside of Tanzania to implement their own version of cooperative development. From one of these attempts emerged the Ruvuma Development Association (RDA), which organized up to 18 villages in southwestern Tanzania. The RDA became the inspiration for Nyerere´s concretization of Ujamaa and its implementation on national level. Yet, the central state could not replicate the success of the peasants, which was based on voluntariness and intrinsic motivation.
In 2015, this exploratory study has revisited the Region of Ruvuma. Through a case study approach, relying mostly on qualitative methods, new insights into the local history of Ujamaa and its perception have been gathered. In particular, narrative interviews with contemporary witnesses and group interviews with the present-day farmers’ groups have been conducted. Furthermore, NGOs active within the region, as well as regional and local government institutions were among the key stakeholders identified to concretize the local narrative of Ujamaa development. All interviews were analyzed according to the principles of qualitative content analysis. Additionally, individual villager questionnaires were used to achieve a more holistic picture of the local perception of development, challenges and the Ujamaa era.
None of the original Ujamaa groups of the times of the RDA was still operational at the time of research and no case of village-wide organization of collective agriculture could be observed. Nevertheless, in all of the three case study villages, several farmers’ groups (vikundi) were active in organizing development activities for their members. Furthermore, the perception of the Ujamaa era was generally positive throughout all of the case study sites. Yet, there have been significant differences in this perception, based on the village, age, gender and field size of the recipients. Overall, the period of Ujamaa was seen as an inspiration for present-day group activities, and the idea of such activities as a remedy for the developmental challenges of these villages was common among all stakeholders.
This thesis concludes that the positive perception of group activities as a vehicle for village development and the perception of Ujamaa history as a positive asset for the inception and organization of farmers’ groups would be highly beneficial to further attempts to support such development activities. However, the limitations in market access and capital availability for these highly-motivated group members have to be addressed by public and private development institutions. Otherwise, "the smell of Ujamaa" will be of little use for the progress of these villages.
The Kaapvaal Craton hosts a number of large gold deposits (e.g. Witwatersrand Supergroup) which mining companies have exploited at certain stratigraphic positions. It also hosts the largest platinum group element (PGE) deposits (e.g. Bushveld Igneous Complex) which mining companies have exploited in different mineralised layered magmatic zones. In spite of the extensive exploration history in the Kaapvaal Craton, the origin of the Witwatersrand gold deposits and Bushveld Igneous Complex PGE deposits has remained one of the most debated topics in economic geology. The goal of this study was to identify the geochemical characteristics of marine shales in the Barberton, Witwatersrand, and Transvaal supergroups in South Africa in order to make inferences on their sediment provenance and siderophile element endowments. Understanding why some of the Archaean and Proterozoic hinterlands are heavily mineralised, compared to others with similar geological characteristics, will aid in the development of more efficient exploration models. Fresh, unmineralised marine shales from the Barberton (Fig Tree and Moodies groups), Witwatersrand (West Rand and Central Rand groups), and Transvaal (Black Reef Formation and Pretoria Group) supergroups were sampled from drill core and underground mining exposures. Analytical methods, such as X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), optical microscopy, X-ray fluorescence (XRF), inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES), inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and electron microprobe analysis (EMPA) were applied to comprehensively characterise the shales. All of the Au and PGE assays examined the newly collected shale samples.
The Barberton Supergroup shales consist mainly of quartz, illite, chlorite, and albite, with diverse heavy minerals, including sulfides and oxides, representing the minor constituents. The regionally persistent Witwatersrand Supergroup shales consist mainly of quartz, muscovite, and chlorite, and also contain minor constituents of sulfides and oxides. The Transvaal Supergroup shales comprise quartz, chlorite, and carbonaceous material. Major, trace (including rare-earth element) concentrations were determined for shales from the above supergroups to constrain their source and post-depositional evolution. Chemical variations were observed in all the studied marine shales. Results obtained from this study revealed that post-depositional modification of shale chemistry was significant only near contacts with over- and underlying coarser-grained siliciclastic rocks and along cross-cutting faults, veins, and dykes. Away from such zones, the shale composition remained largely unaltered and can be used to draw inferences concerning sediment provenance and palaeoweathering in the source region and/or on intrabasinal erosion surfaces. Evaluation of weathering profiles through sections of the studied supergroups revealed that the shales therein are characterised by high chemical index of alteration (CIA), chemical index of weathering (CIW), and index of compositional variability (ICV), suggesting that the source area was lithologically complex and subject to intense chemical weathering.
A progressive change in the chemical composition was identified, from a dominant ultramafic–mafic source for the Fig Tree Group to a progressively felsic–plutonic provenance for the Moodies Group. The West Rand Group of the Witwatersrand Supergroup shows a dominance of tonalite–trondhjemite–granodiorite and calcalkaline granite sources. Compositional profiles through the only major marine shale unit within the Central Rand Group indicate the progressive unroofing of a granitic source in an otherwise greenstone-dominated hinterland during the course of sedimentation. No plausible likely tectonic setting was obtained through geochemical modelling. However, the combination of the systematic shale chemistry, geochronology, and sedimentology in the Witwatersrand Supergroup supports the hypothesised passive margin setting for the >2.98 to 2.91 Ga West Rand Group, and an active continental margin source for the overlying >2.90 to 2.78 Ga Central Rand Group, along with a foreland basin setting for the latter.
Ultra-low detection limit analyses of gold and PGE concentrations revealed a variable degree of gold accumulation within pristine unmineralised shales. All the studied shales contain elevated gold and PGE contents relative to the upper continental crust, with marine shales from the Central Rand Group showing the highest Au (±9.85 ppb) enrichment. Based on this variation in the provenance of contemporaneous sediments in different parts of the Kaapvaal Craton, one can infer that the siderophile elements were sourced from a fertile hinterland, but concentrated into the marine shales by a combination of different processes. It is proposed that accumulation of siderophile elements in the studied marine shales was mainly controlled by mechanical coagulation and aggregation. These processes involved suspended sediments, fine gold particles, and other trace elements being trapped in marine environments. Mechanical coagulation and aggregation resulted in gold enrichments by 2–3 orders of magnitude, whereas some of the gold in these marine shales can be reconciled by seawater adsorption into sedimentary pyrite.
For the source of gold and PGEs in the studied marine shales in the Kaapvaal Craton, a genetic model is proposed that involves the following:
(1) A highly siderophile elements enriched upper mantle domain, herein referred to as “geochemically anomalous mantle domain”, from which the Kaapvaal crust was sourced. This mantle domain enriched in highly siderophile elements was formed either by inhomogeneous mixing with cosmic material that was added during intense meteorite bombardment of the Hadaean to Palaeoarchaean Earth or by plume-like ascent of relics from the core–mantle boundary. In both cases, elevated siderophile elements concentrations would be expected. The geochemically anomalous mantle domain is likely the ultimate source of the Witwatersrand modified palaeoplacer gold deposits and was tapped again ca. 2.054 Ga during the emplacement of the Bushveld Igneous Complex. Therefore, I propose that there is a genetic link (i.e. common geochemically anomalous mantle source) between the Witwatersrand gold deposits and the younger Bushveld Igneous Complex PGE deposits.
(2) Scavenging of crustal gold by various surface processes such as trapping of gold from Archaean/Palaeoproterozoic river water on the surface of local photosynthesizing cyanobacterial or microbial mats, and reworking of these mats into erosion channels during flooding events.
The above two models complement each other, with model (1) providing a common geological source for the Witwatersrand gold and Bushveld Igneous Complex PGE deposits, and model (2) explaining the processes responsible for Witwatersrand-type gold pre-concentration processes. In sequences such as the Transvaal Supergroup, a less fertile hinterland and/or less reworking of older sediments led to a correspondingly lower gold endowment. These findings indicate temporal distribution of siderophile elements in the upper crust (e.g. marine shales). The overall implications of these findings are that background concentrations of gold and PGEs can be used to target potential exploration areas in other cratons of similar age. This increases the likelihood of finding other Witwatersrand-type gold or Bushveld Igneous Complex-type PGE deposits in other cratons.
Der Anteil älterer und alter Menschen an der Gesamtbevölkerung steigt kontinuierlich an. Diese Entwicklung wird sich auch in den kommenden Jahren fortsetzen. So werden 2050 rund 40 % der deutschen Bevölkerung 60 Jahre oder älter sein. Die Alterung der Bevölkerung wirkt sich auf nahezu alle Lebensbereiche aus und stellt damit Planer und Entscheider auf staatlicher wie auf privater Seite vor neue Herausforderungen. Dies betrifft auch die Frage, wie innerstädtische Einkaufsstandorte, und zwar traditionelle innerstädtische Einkaufsstraßen und innerstädtische Shopping Center, gestaltet werden müssen, um den Anforderungen und Bedürfnissen möglichst aller Altersgruppen und damit auch denjenigen der älteren und alten Konsumenten zu entsprechen.
Am Beispiel der Städte Erlangen, Koblenz und Zwickau wird in vorliegender Untersuchung der Frage nachgegangen, wie ältere und alte Menschen die verschiedenen innerstädtischen Einkaufsstandorte wahrnehmen und nutzen, welche Unterschiede diesbezüglich zu jüngeren Kundengruppen bestehen und welche Schlussfolgerungen sich daraus für eine zukunftsgerichtete Gestaltung der traditionellen Einkaufsstraßen und der innerstädtischen Shopping Center ableiten lassen. Für die Untersuchung kam ein breites methodisches Instrumentarium aus Zeitungsrecherchen, Kartierungen, qualitativen Beobachtungen, qualitativen Haushaltsbefragungen sowie quantitativen Passantenbefragungen zur Anwendung.
Die 15 deutschen UNESCO-Biosphärenreservate sollen als Modellregionen eine nachhaltige Entwicklung verwirklichen, wozu neben dem Schutz des Naturhaushaltes und der genetischen Ressourcen auch die sozio-ökonomische Entwicklung der Region zu gewährleisten ist. Als Zielgebiete touristischer Nachfrage stellt der Tourismus potentiell eine Entwicklungschance, und laut den deutschen MAB-Kriterien, ein relevantes Handlungsfeld für die Biosphärenreservats-Verwaltungen dar. Die vorliegende Arbeit behandelt aus zwei unterschiedlichen Perspektiven die Frage, inwieweit Tourismus zur nachhaltigen Regionalentwicklung in den deutschen Biosphärenreservaten beiträgt.
Zum einen wird mittels einer Wertschöpfungsanalyse die touristische Nachfrage und dadurch ausgelöste regionalökonomische Effekte untersucht, was eine Erfassung der Besucher hinsichtlich Anzahl, Strukturen, Ausgabenniveaus, Aufenthaltsmerkmalen sowie Einstellungen umfasst. Zum anderen wird ermittelt, inwieweit die Biosphärenreservats-Verwaltungen die touristische Entwicklung auf regionaler Ebene im Sinne der nachhaltigen Regionalentwicklung mitgestalten. Basierend auf einer touristischen Typisierung der deutschen Biosphärenreservate werden hierzu sechs ausgewählte Biosphärenreservate (Pfälzerwald, Rhön, Schaalsee, Spreewald, Südost-Rügen, Vessertal-Thüringer Wald) eingehend untersucht.
Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Besucherzahlen zwischen 487.000 im Vessertal-Thüringer Wald und 6,4 Mio. in der Rhön schwanken. Insgesamt wird in den sechs Gebieten ein Bruttoumsatz von 908 Mio. € generiert, was einer Wertschöpfung von 474 Mio. € und 28.000 Einkommensäquivalenten entspricht. Der Wert relativiert sich, betrachtet man die Biosphärenreservatsbesucher im engeren Sinn, die für rund 7 % des Bruttoumsatzes bzw. 1.917 Einkommensäquivalente verantwortlich sind. Das Segment ist tendenziell schwach vertreten, jedoch empfänglich für die Ansätze der nachhaltigen Ausrichtung des Tourismus seitens der Biosphärenreservats-Verwaltung. Es präferiert z.B. traditionelle Kulturlandschaftsbilder, Bio-Labels und Regionalität bei Produkten und ist offen gegenüber Schutzbemühungen, was sich jedoch noch nicht im Ausgabeverhalten widerspiegelt.
Hier setzen die Verwaltungen der Biosphärenreservate im Tourismus an und werden auf Destinationsebene im Bereich der strategischen Planung, der Fördermittelakquise, der Generierung touristischer Angebote und Dienstleistungen, der Entwicklung von Regionalvermarktungs- und Partner-Initiativen sowie der Positionierung des Biosphärenreservates als Destination und Marke aktiv. Dennoch wird in allen Gebieten nahezu ausnahmslos die Integration des Biosphärenreservates als Akteur, Attraktion und Angebotsfamilie und verbindende Thematik auf Destinationsebene als verbesserungswürdig eingestuft. Im Rahmen der Arbeit können dafür relevante Faktoren abgeleitet werden, die somit Ansatzpunkte darstellen, den noch ausbaufähigen Beitrag des Tourismus zur nachhaltigen Regionalentwicklung in Biosphärenreservaten im Sinne tangibler und intangibler Effekte zu steigern.
Der demographische Wandel stellt in den meisten entwickelten Ländern einen externen Treiber dar, der die Entwicklung in und um Nationalparke in Zukunft maßgeblich mitbestimmen wird. Die Alterung der Besucher, die in den nächsten beiden Jahrzehnten die dominante Komponente des demographischen Wandels in Deutschland darstellen dürfte, erfordert von Seiten der Nationalparke eine Anpassung ihrer Besuchermanagementaktivitäten auch im Bereich der Infrastruktur. Hierfür muss jedoch zunächst grundlegendes Wissen über die Altersabhängigkeit raumzeitlichen Verhaltens vorhanden sein. Die zentrale forschungsleitende Frage der vorliegenden Arbeit ist in diesem Kontext angesiedelt und versucht herauszuarbeiten, in welcher Art auftretende Alterseffekte bei der körperlichen Leistungsfähigkeit sowohl die Tourenoptionen im Raum als auch das tatsächliche raumzeitliche Verhalten beeinflussen. Als Untersuchungsgebiet wurde mit dem Nationalpark Berchtesgaden der einzige alpine Nationalpark Deutschlands gewählt. Dieser besitzt aufgrund seiner Topographie ein breites Spektrum an Tourenmöglichkeiten mit unterschiedlichsten Anforderungen an die körperliche Leistungsfähigkeit. Aufbauend auf den theoretischen Erklärungszugängen der Time-Geography und des Constraints-Konzeptes der Freizeitforschung wurde zur Beantwortung der Forschungsfragen ein Methodenmix aus standardisierter Befragung und GPS-Logging zur Aufnahme des Tourenwahlverhaltens eingesetzt. Die gewonnenen Trajektorien wurden mit weiteren Informationen zur Ausstattung des Raumes versehen, um eine detailliertere Beschreibung des raumzeitlichen Verhaltens zu ermöglichen.
Die Analysen zeigen, dass im Nationalpark Berchtesgaden vier Aktivitätstypen mit abweichendem raumzeitlichem Verhalten unterschieden werden können. Nur eine Minderheit von ca. einem Drittel der Besucher wählt dabei Touren, die mit größerer körperlicher Anstrengung verbunden sind. Die restlichen Besucher wandern nur halbtags oder kürzer im Gebiet und überwinden dabei nur wenige Höhenmeter. Im Altersverlauf konnten klare Brüche im raumzeitlichen Verhalten identifiziert werden. So verliert der Aktivitätstypus des Bergsteigers, der sich durch die Begehung alpiner Wege mit Absturzgefahr auszeichnet, bereits ab einem Alter von 50 Jahren stark an Bedeutung. Ab 60 Jahren steigt der Anteil sehr kurzer Touren sprunghaft. Ursachen dieser Veränderungen liegen primär in der Wahrnehmung von eingeschränkter körperlicher Leistungsfähigkeit, sowie einer veränderten Motivationsstruktur.
Diese abweichenden Muster raumzeitlichen Verhaltens sind jedoch auch das Resultat divergierender Tourenoptionen. So konnte gezeigt werden, dass ältere Besucher aufgrund der niedrigen Fortbewegungsgeschwindigkeit nur einen geringeren Anteil der Wege im Nationalpark innerhalb eines bestimmten Zeitbudgets erreichen können.
Wird die Verteilung der Aktivitätstypen unter der Annahme eines ausschließlich wirkenden Alterseffektes in die Zukunft übertragen, bedeutet dies eine Steigerung der Besucherkonzentration in der Managementzone des Nationalparks und eine Bedeutungszunahme von stationären Aktivitäten.
Schutzgebiete und insbesondere Nationalparke haben nach den Richtlinien der IUCN ein Doppelmandat bzw. eine doppelte Funktion: Sie sollen zum einen Räume für Natur- und Artenschutz und zum anderen für Erholung, Umweltbildung und Tourismus bieten und durch letztgenanntes zur Stärkung der Regionalökonomie beitragen. Um diesen Spagat zu meistern, sollten sich Schutzgebiete bzw. deren Verwaltungen und kooperierende Destinationsmarketingorganisationen darüber im Klaren sein, welche Besuchersegmente bzw. Tourismusprodukte im Schutzgebiet anzutreffen sind, bzw. angeboten werden und welchen Einfluss diese auf die Erfüllung des Doppelmandates haben. Die deduktiv entworfene Product-based Typology for Nature-based Tourism von ARNEGGER et al. (2010) bietet hierfür einen zweidimensionalen Analyserahmen, der die Angebots- und Nachfrageperspektive auf den Tourismus und dessen Produkte vereint und bisher noch nicht empirisch angewendet wurde, was das vorrangige Ziel dieser Studie ist.
Hierfür wurde von Theorien und empirischen Studien aus dem Kontext von Natur- und Ökotourismus eine Operationalisierung der Typologie abgeleitet, die am Beispiel des Nationalparks Berchtesgaden eingesetzt wurde. Dabei wurden zwei Ansätze verfolgt, eine angebotsseitige und eine nachfrageseitige Abgrenzung von Tourismusprodukten. Zur empirischen Erfassung von Tourismusprodukten wurde eine umfassende Besucherbefragung in der Sommersaison 2014 durchgeführt, bei der Informationen von rund 1.400 Besuchern des Nationalparks gesammelt werden konnten.
Aus Sicht der Nachfrager wurden sechs Produkt-Cluster identifiziert, die sich bezüglich Reiseaktivitäten und Motiven unterscheiden. Das mit der höchsten Naturaffinität ist das Produkt-Cluster der „Naturbildungsurlauber“ bzw. der „Ökotouristen“. Auf der anderen Seite des Spektrums stehen die „Passiven Erholungsurlauber“ mit einer geringen Nationalparkaffinität. Des Weiteren wurden spezifische Tourismusprodukte aus der Angebotsperspektive, wie Exkursionen der Nationalparkverwaltung oder mehrtägige geführte Wanderungen von spezialisierten Nischenreiseveranstaltern, identifiziert.
Nach der empirischen Abgrenzung der Produkte wurden diese dahingehend überprüft, ob sie sich bezüglich ökonomischer und ökologischer Indikatoren unterscheiden, um zu eruieren, inwieweit die Segmente aus Sicht einer nachhaltigen Regionalentwicklung bzw. aus Sicht des Doppelmandats zu beurteilen sind. Auch hier schneiden etwa die Naturbildungsurlauber relativ gut ab, da sie Muster von structured ecotourism aufweisen und sich durch eine hohe Naturaffinität, positive Einstellungen zu nachhaltigem Tourismus und relativ hohe Reiseausgaben auszeichnen. Bei drei Clustern zeigt sich ein gewisser trade-off: Während die Bergsteiger aus ökologischer jedoch nicht aus ökonomischer Perspektive interessant sind, ist dies bei den allgemeinen Vergnügungs- und Naturerlebnisurlaubern und den passiven Erholungsurlaubern genau umgekehrt.
Basierend auf den Ergebnissen werden mögliche Adaptionen der Typologie diskutiert und darauf aufbauend ein Analyserahmen für eine „Typologie für Nachhaltige Park-Tourismus Produkte“ erarbeitet. Zudem werden theoretische und erste praktische Implikationen für das Management von Schutzgebiets-Destinationen diskutiert, um unter Berücksichtigung der trade-offs das Produktportfolio weiterzuentwickeln, das eine Destination auf den Pfad des sogenannten enlightened mass tourism bringen kann.