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Blood platelets are produced by large bone marrow (BM) precursor cells, megakaryocytes (MKs), which extend cytoplasmic protrusions (proplatelets) into BM sinusoids. The molecular cues that control MK polarization towards sinusoids and limit transendothelial crossing to proplatelets remain unknown. Here, we show that the small GTPases Cdc42 and RhoA act as a regulatory circuit downstream of the MK-specific mechanoreceptor GPIb to coordinate polarized transendothelial platelet biogenesis. Functional deficiency of either GPIb or Cdc42 impairs transendothelial proplatelet formation. In the absence of RhoA, increased Cdc42 activity and MK hyperpolarization triggers GPIb-dependent transmigration of entire MKs into BM sinusoids. These findings position Cdc42 (go-signal) and RhoA (stop-signal) at the centre of a molecular checkpoint downstream of GPIb that controls transendothelial platelet biogenesis. Our results may open new avenues for the treatment of platelet production disorders and help to explain the thrombocytopenia in patients with Bernard–Soulier syndrome, a bleeding disorder caused by defects in GPIb-IX-V.
The human ubiquitin ligase HUWE1 has key roles in tumorigenesis, yet it is unkown how its activity is regulated. We present the crystal structure of a C-terminal part of HUWE1, including the catalytic domain, and reveal an asymmetric auto-inhibited dimer. We show that HUWE1 dimerizes in solution and self-associates in cells, and that both occurs through the crystallographic dimer interface. We demonstrate that HUWE1 is inhibited in cells and that it can be activated by disruption of the dimer interface. We identify a conserved segment in HUWE1 that counteracts dimer formation by associating with the dimerization region intramolecularly. Our studies reveal, intriguingly, that the tumor suppressor p14ARF binds to this segment and may thus shift the conformational equilibrium of HUWE1 toward the inactive state. We propose a model, in which the activity of HUWE1 underlies conformational control in response to physiological cues—a mechanism that may be exploited for cancer therapy.
Timing seasonal events, like reproduction or diapause, is crucial for the survival of many species. Global change causes phenologies worldwide to shift, which requires a mechanistic explanation of seasonal time measurement. Day length (photoperiod) is a reliable indicator of winter arrival, but it remains unclear how exactly species measure day length. A reference for time of day could be provided by a circadian clock, by an hourglass clock, or, as some newer models suggest, by a damped circadian clock. However, damping of clock outputs has so far been rarely observed. To study putative clock outputs of Acyrthosiphon pisum aphids, we raised individual nymphs on coloured artificial diet, and measured rhythms in metabolic activity in light-dark illumination cycles of 16:08 hours (LD) and constant conditions (DD). In addition, we kept individuals in a novel monitoring setup and measured locomotor activity. We found that A. pisum is day-active in LD, potentially with a bimodal distribution. In constant darkness rhythmicity of locomotor behaviour persisted in some individuals, but patterns were mostly complex with several predominant periods. Metabolic activity, on the other hand, damped quickly. A damped circadian clock, potentially driven by multiple oscillator populations, is the most likely explanation of our results.
For persistent infections of the mammalian host, African trypanosomes limit their population size by quorum sensing of the parasite-excreted stumpy induction factor (SIF), which induces development to the tsetse-infective stumpy stage. We found that besides this cell density-dependent mechanism, there exists a second path to the stumpy stage that is linked to antigenic variation, the main instrument of parasite virulence. The expression of a second variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) leads to transcriptional attenuation of the VSG expression site (ES) and immediate development to tsetse fly infective stumpy parasites. This path is independent of SIF and solely controlled by the transcriptional status of the ES. In pleomorphic trypanosomes varying degrees of ES-attenuation result in phenotypic plasticity. While full ES-attenuation causes irreversible stumpy development, milder attenuation may open a time window for rescuing an unsuccessful antigenic switch, a scenario that so far has not been considered as important for parasite survival.
Intracellular pathogenic microorganisms and toxins exploit host cell mechanisms to enter, exert their deleterious effects as well as hijack host nutrition for their development. A potential approach to treat multiple pathogen infections and that should not induce drug resistance is the use of small molecules that target host components. We identifed the compound 1-adamantyl (5-bromo-2-methoxybenzyl) amine (ABMA) from a cell-based high throughput screening for its capacity to protect human cells and mice against ricin toxin without toxicity. This compound efciently protects cells against various toxins and pathogens including viruses, intracellular bacteria and parasite. ABMA provokes Rab7-positive late endosomal compartment accumulation in mammalian cells without affecting other organelles (early endosomes, lysosomes, the Golgi apparatus, the endoplasmic reticulum or the nucleus). As the mechanism of action of ABMA is restricted to host-endosomal compartments, it reduces cell infection by pathogens that depend on this pathway to invade cells. ABMA may represent a novel class of broad-spectrum compounds with therapeutic potential against diverse severe infectious diseases.
Theory predicts that males and females should often join the mating pool at different times (sexual dimorphism in timing of emergence [SDT]) as the degree of SDT affects female mating success. We utilize an analytical model to explore (1) how important SDT is for female mating success, (2) how mating success might change if either sex's mortality (abruptly) increases, and (3) to what degree evolutionary responses in SDT may be able to mitigate the consequences of such mortality increase. Increasing male pre‐mating mortality has a non‐linear effect on the fraction of females mated: The effect is initially weak, but at some critical level a further increase in male mortality has a stronger effect than a similar increase in female mortality. Such a change is expected to impose selection for reduced SDT. Increasing mortality during the mating season has always a stronger effect on female mating success if the mortality affects the sex that emerges first. This bias results from the fact that enhancing mortality of the earlier emerging sex reduces female–male encounter rates. However, an evolutionary response in SDT may effectively mitigate such consequences. Further, if considered independently for females and males, the predicted evolutionary response in SDT could be quite dissimilar. The difference between female and male evolutionary response in SDT leads to marked differences in the fraction of fertilized females under certain conditions. Our model may provide general guidelines for improving harvesting of populations, conservation management of rare species under altered environmental conditions, or maintaining long‐term efficiency of pest‐control measures.
Epigenetic alterations may contribute to the generation of cancer cells in a multi-step process of tumorigenesis following irradiation of normal body cells. Primary human fibroblasts with intact cell cycle checkpoints were used as a model to test whether X-ray irradiation with 2 and 4 Gray induces direct epigenetic effects (within the first cell cycle) in the exposed cells. ELISA-based fluorometric assays were consistent with slightly reduced global DNA methylation and hydroxymethylation, however the observed between-group differences were usually not significant. Similarly, bisulfite pyrosequencing of interspersed LINE-1 repeats and centromeric α-satellite DNA did not detect significant methylation differences between irradiated and non-irradiated cultures. Methylation of interspersed ALU repeats appeared to be slightly increased (one percentage point; p = 0.01) at 6 h after irradiation with 4 Gy. Single-cell analysis showed comparable variations in repeat methylation among individual cells in both irradiated and control cultures. Radiation-induced changes in global repeat methylation, if any, were much smaller than methylation variation between different fibroblast strains. Interestingly, α-satellite DNA methylation positively correlated with gestational age. Finally, 450K methylation arrays mainly targeting genes and CpG islands were used for global DNA methylation analysis. There were no detectable methylation differences in genic (promoter, 5' UTR, first exon, gene body, 3' UTR) and intergenic regions between irradiated and control fibroblast cultures. Although we cannot exclude minor effects, i.e. on individual CpG sites, collectively our data suggest that global DNA methylation remains rather stable in irradiated normal body cells in the early phase of DNA damage response.
Certain fatty acids and sphingoid bases found at mucosal surfaces are known to have antibacterial activity and are thought to play a more direct role in innate immunity against bacterial infections. Herein, we analysed the antibacterial activity of sphingolipids, including the sphingoid base sphingosine as well as short-chain C\(_{6}\) and long-chain C\(_{16}\)-ceramides and azido-functionalized ceramide analogs against pathogenic Neisseriae. Determination of the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) demonstrated that short-chain ceramides and a ω-azido-functionalized C\(_{6}\)-ceramide were active against Neisseria meningitidis and N. gonorrhoeae, whereas they were inactive against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Kinetic assays showed that killing of N. meningitidis occurred within 2 h with ω–azido-C\(_{6}\)-ceramide at 1 X the MIC. Of note, at a bactericidal concentration, ω–azido-C\(_{6}\)-ceramide had no significant toxic effect on host cells. Moreover, lipid uptake and localization was studied by flow cytometry and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and revealed a rapid uptake by bacteria within 5 min. CLSM and super-resolution fluorescence imaging by direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy demonstrated homogeneous distribution of ceramide analogs in the bacterial membrane. Taken together, these data demonstrate the potent bactericidal activity of sphingosine and synthetic short-chain ceramide analogs against pathogenic Neisseriae.
Neoplasms of the skin represent the most frequent tumors worldwide; fortunately, most of them are benign or semi-malignant and well treatable. However, the two most aggressive and deadly forms of malignant skin-neoplasms are melanoma and Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), being responsible for more than 90% of skin-cancer related deaths. The last decade has yielded enormous progress in melanoma therapy with the advent of targeted therapies, like BRAF or MEK inhibitors, and immune-stimulating therapies, using checkpoint antibodies targeting CTLA- 4, PD-1 or PD-L1. Very recent studies suggest that also MCC patients benefit from a treatment with checkpoint antibodies. Nevertheless, in an advanced metastatic stage, a cure for both of these aggressive malignancies is still hard to achieve: while only a subset of patients experience durable benefit from the immune-based therapies, the widely applicable targeted therapies struggle with development of resistances that inevitably occur in most patients, and finally lead to their death. The four articles included in this thesis addressed current questions concerning therapy and carcinogenesis of melanoma and MCC. Moreover, they are discussed in the light of the up-to-date research regarding targeted and immune-based therapies. In article I we demonstrated that besides apoptosis, MAPK pathway inhibition in BRAF-mutated melanoma cells also induces senescence, a permanent cell cycle arrest. These cells may provide a source for relapse, as even permanently arrested cancer cells can contribute to a pro-tumorigenic milieu. To identify molecular factors determining the differential response, we established M14 melanoma cell line derived single cell clones that either undergo cell death or arrest when treated with BRAF/MEK inhibitors. Using these single cell clones, we demonstrated in article IV that downregulation of the pro-apoptotic BH3-only protein BIK via epigenetic silencing is involved in apoptosis deficiency, which can be overcome by HDAC inhibitors. These observations provide a possible explanation for the lack of a complete and durable response to MAPK inhibitor treatment in melanoma patients, and suggest the application of HDAC inhibitors as a complimentary therapy to MAPK pathway inhibition. Concerning MCC, we scrutinized the interactions between the Merkel cell polyomavirus’ (MCV) T antigens (TA) and the tumor suppressors p53 and Rb in article II and III, respectively. In article III, we demonstrated that the cell cycle master regulator Rb is the crucial target of MCV large T (LT), while it - in contrast to other polyomavirus LTs - exhibits much lower affinity to the related proteins p107 and p130. Knockdown of MCV LT led to proliferation arrest in MCC cells, which can be rescued by knockdown of Rb, but not by knockdown of p107 and p130. Contrary to Rb, restriction of p53 in MCC seems to be independent of the MCV TAs, as we demonstrated in article II. In conclusion, the presented thesis has revealed new molecular details, regarding the response of melanoma cells towards an important treatment modality and the mechanisms of viral carcinogenesis in MCC.
Plants initially accepted by foraging leaf-cutting ants are later avoided if they prove unsuitable for their symbiotic fungus. Plant avoidance is mediated by the waste produced in the fungus garden soon after the incorporation of the unsuitable leaves, as foragers can learn plant odors and cues from the damaged fungus that are both present in the recently produced waste particles. We asked whether avoidance learning of plants unsuitable for the symbiotic fungus can take place entirely at the colony dump. In order to investigate whether cues available in the waste chamber induce plant avoidance in naïve subcolonies, we exchanged the waste produced by subcolonies fed either fungicide-treated privet leaves or untreated leaves and measured the acceptance of untreated privet leaves before and after the exchange of waste. Second, we evaluated whether foragers could perceive the avoidance cues directly at the dump by quantifying the visits of labeled foragers to the waste chamber. Finally, we asked whether foragers learn to specifically avoid untreated leaves of a plant after a confinement over 3 hours in the dump of subcolonies that were previously fed fungicide-treated leaves of that species. After the exchange of the waste chambers, workers from subcolonies that had access to waste from fungicide-treated privet leaves learned to avoid that plant. One-third of the labeled foragers visited the dump. Furthermore, naïve foragers learned to avoid a specific, previously unsuitable plant if exposed solely to cues of the dump during confinement. We suggest that cues at the dump enable foragers to predict the unsuitable effects of plants even if they had never been experienced in the fungus garden.
Am Rebstock werden in der Natur von Agrobacterium vitis, dem Auslöser Wurzelhalsgallenerkrankung, charakteristische Wurzelhalsgallentumore induziert. Virulente Vertreter der Gattung der Agrobacteria schleusen bakterielle DNA in das pflanzliche Genom ein, wodurch die Pflanze Tumore produziert. Die Wurzelhalsgallenerkrankung wird seit einem Jahrhundert als ein Beispiel der Pflanzen-Pathogen-Interaktion untersucht. Die Rolle der bakteriellen Flora im Zusammenhang mit der Wurzelhalsgallenerkrankung beim Rebstock wurde bisher kaum betrachtet. Um dieser Frage nachzugehen, habe ich die endophytische mikrobielle Zusammensetzung von Rebstöcken mit und ohne Wurzelhalsgalle analysiert. Es werden Proben von drei Zeitpunkten einer Wachstumsperiode (Frühling, Sommer und Herbst) und von den Organen der Rebstöcke (Wurzeln, Pfropfstelle und einjährige Triebe) sowie dem Boden in einer Weinanlage bei Himmelstadt in Unterfranken genommen. Die Bakterienflora dieser Umweltproben wird mit kultivierungsabhängigen (Isolierung von Bakterien) und kultivierungsunabhängigen (Hochdurchsatzsequenzierungen) Methoden untersucht. Zudem werden i) die Virulenz der verschiedenen Agrobacterium-Isolate in Tumorassays bestimmt, ii) synthetische Bakteriengemeinschaften von in vitro kultivierten Weinpflänzchen mit Wurzelhalsgallen analysiert, iii) die Genome von einem virulenten und einem nicht-virulenten Agrobacteria-Isolat aus der Wurzelhalsgalle verglichen, iv) erste Interaktionsstudien auf festen Nährmedien durchgeführt und v) virulente Agrobacteria mittels bildgebender Fluoreszenz-Lebenszeit-Mikroskopie (FLIM) in Wurzelhalsgallen lokalisiert.
Die Rebstöcke dieser Studie haben eine organspezifische Bakterienflora, die innerhalb einer Wachstumsperiode variiert. Nur die Bakterienflora der Pfropfstelle (mit oder ohne Wurzelhalsgalle) aber nicht die des Bodens, der Wurzeln, und der einjährigen Triebe unterscheidet sich strukturell zwischen gesunden und erkrankten Rebstöcken. Mikroskopisch konnten virulente Agrobacteria punktuell in Interzellularen, sklerenchymatischen Geweben und assoziiert mit Leitgefäßen nachgewiesen werden. Dadurch ist ausreichend Lebensraum vorhanden, der zusätzlich von tumorspezifischen Bakterien besiedelt werden kann. Im Gegensatz zur gesunden Pfropfstelle ist in der Wurzelhalsgalle eine saisonal stabile Kernmikroflora, bestehend aus Vertreter von A. vitis, Pseudomonas, Enterobacteriaceae, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Gammaproteobacteria und Burkholderiales, vorhanden. Diese Bakterien werden überwiegend aus dem Boden rekrutiert und profitieren von der Nährstoffsituation in der Wurzelhalsgalle. Wurzelhalsgallen enthalten Opine, die nur von der transformierten Pflanzenzelle produziert werden. Interessanterweise hat in dieser Arbeit ein Agrobacterium-Isolat Gene, die zum Opinkatabolismus beitragen und ein Pseudomonas-Isolat kann Opine als einzige Kohlenstoffquelle nutzen. Trotzdem sind beide Isolate weder virulent noch verdrängen sie die virulenten A. vitis, die ebenso Opine nutzen, aus der Wurzelhalsgalle. In synthetischen Bakteriengemeinschaften an in vitro kultivierten Weinpflänzchen konnte gezeigt werden, dass diese und weitere tumorspezifischen Bakterien, neben A. vitis, nicht essentiell zur Entstehung der Wurzelhalsgalle nötig sind aber unterschiedliche Funktionen in der Wurzelhalsgalle übernehmen. Ein Serratia-Isolat hemmt das Wachstum von A. vitis auf festen Nährmedium, andere fördern oder hemmen das Wachstum der Wurzelhalsgalle. Nach Studien in der Literatur erhöhen weitere Bakterien die Resistenz des Rebstocks gegenüber biotischem und abiotischem Stress.
Zusammengefasst identifizierten und isolierte ich in dieser Studie unter 150 unterschiedlichen Bakterien in der Wurzelhalsgalle jene Bakterien, die neben A. vitis von der neuen ökologischen Nische profitieren und somit wahrscheinlich Opportunisten mit unterschiedlichen Funktionen sind. In Folge von multiplen Interaktionen in der Wurzelhalsgalle entsteht ein ökologisches Gleichgewicht zwischen den opportunistischen Bakterien, der Wurzelhalsgalle und dem Rebstock, das den Fortbestand des Rebstocks mit Wurzelhalsgalle ermöglicht.
Bee pollination increases yield quantity and quality of cash crops in Burkina Faso, West Africa
(2017)
Mutualistic biotic interactions as among flowering plants and their animal pollinators are a key component of biodiversity. Pollination, especially by insects, is a key element in ecosystem functioning, and hence constitutes an ecosystem service of global importance. Not only sexual reproduction of plants is ensured, but also yields are stabilized and genetic variability of crops is maintained, counteracting inbreeding depression and facilitating system resilience. While experiencing rapid environmental change, there is an increased demand for food and income security, especially in sub-Saharan communities, which are highly dependent on small scale agriculture. By combining exclusion experiments, pollinator surveys and field manipulations, this study for the first time quantifies the contribution of bee pollinators to smallholders’ production of the major cash crops, cotton and sesame, in Burkina Faso. Pollination by honeybees and wild bees significantly increased yield quantity and quality on average up to 62%, while exclusion of pollinators caused an average yield gap of 37% in cotton and 59% in sesame. Self-pollination revealed inbreeding depression effects on fruit set and low germination rates in the F1-generation. Our results highlight potential negative consequences of any pollinator decline, provoking risks to agriculture and compromising crop yields in sub-Saharan West Africa.
A fundamental problem in deciding between mutually exclusive options is that the decision needs to be categorical although the properties of the options often differ but in grade. We developed an experimental handle to study this aspect of behavior organization. Larval Drosophila were trained such that in one set of animals odor A was rewarded, but odor B was not (A+/B), whereas a second set of animals was trained reciprocally (A/B+). We then measured the preference of the larvae either for A, or for B, or for “morphed” mixtures of A and B, that is for mixtures differing in the ratio of the two components. As expected, the larvae showed higher preference when only the previously rewarded odor was presented than when only the previously unrewarded odor was presented. For mixtures of A and B that differed in the ratio of the two components, the major component dominated preference behavior—but it dominated less than expected from a linear relationship between mixture ratio and preference behavior. This suggests that a minor component can have an enhanced impact in a mixture, relative to such a linear expectation. The current paradigm may prove useful in understanding how nervous systems generate discrete outputs in the face of inputs that differ only gradually.
Background: During early prenatal stages of brain development, serotonin (5-HT)-specific neurons migrate through somal translocation to form the raphe nuclei and subsequently begin to project to their target regions. The rostral cluster of cells, comprising the median and dorsal raphe (DR), innervates anterior regions of the brain, including the prefrontal cortex. Differential analysis of the mouse 5-HT system transcriptome identified enrichment of cell adhesion molecules in 5-HT neurons of the DR. One of these molecules, cadherin-13 (Cdh13) has been shown to play a role in cell migration, axon pathfinding, and synaptogenesis. This study aimed to investigate the contribution of Cdh13 to the development of the murine brain 5-HT system.
Methods: For detection of Cdh13 and components of the 5-HT system at different embryonic developmental stages of the mouse brain, we employed immunofluorescence protocols and imaging techniques, including epifluorescence, confocal and structured illumination microscopy. The consequence of CDH13 loss-of-function mutations on brain 5-HT system development was explored in a mouse model of Cdh13 deficiency.
Results: Our data show that in murine embryonic brain Cdh13 is strongly expressed on 5-HT specific neurons of the DR and in radial glial cells (RGCs), which are critically involved in regulation of neuronal migration. We observed that 5-HT neurons are intertwined with these RGCs, suggesting that these neurons undergo RGC-guided migration. Cdh13 is present at points of intersection between these two cell types. Compared to wildtype controls, Cdh13-deficient mice display increased cell densities in the DR at embryonic stages E13.5, E17.5, and adulthood, and higher serotonergic innervation of the prefrontal cortex at E17.5.
Conclusion: Our findings provide evidence for a role of CDH13 in the development of the serotonergic system in early embryonic stages. Specifically, we indicate that Cdh13 deficiency affects the cell density of the developing DR and the posterior innervation of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), and therefore might be involved in the migration, axonal outgrowth and terminal target finding of DR 5-HT neurons. Dysregulation of CDH13 expression may thus contribute to alterations in this system of neurotransmission, impacting cognitive function, which is frequently impaired in neurodevelopmental disorders including attention-deficit/hyperactivity and autism spectrum disorders.
Defense against biotic or abiotic stresses is one of the benefits of living in symbiosis. Leaf-cutting ants, which live in an obligate mutualism with a fungus, attenuate thermal and desiccation stress of their partner through behavioral responses, by choosing suitable places for fungus-rearing across the soil profile. The underground environment also presents hypoxic (low oxygen) and hypercapnic (high carbon dioxide) conditions, which can negatively influence the symbiont. Here, we investigated whether workers of the leaf-cutting ant Acromyrmex lundii use the CO\(_{2}\) concentration as an orientation cue when selecting a place to locate their fungus garden, and whether they show preferences for specific CO\(_{2}\) concentrations. We also evaluated whether levels preferred by workers for fungus-rearing differ from those selected for themselves. In the laboratory, CO\(_{2}\) preferences were assessed in binary choices between chambers with different CO\(_{2}\) concentrations, by quantifying number of workers in each chamber and amount of relocated fungus. Leaf-cutting ants used the CO\(_{2}\) concentration as a spatial cue when selecting places for fungus-rearing. A. lundii preferred intermediate CO\(_{2}\) levels, between 1 and 3%, as they would encounter at soil depths where their nest chambers are located. In addition, workers avoided both atmospheric and high CO\(_{2}\) levels as they would occur outside the nest and at deeper soil layers, respectively. In order to prevent fungus desiccation, however, workers relocated fungus to high CO\(_{2}\) levels, which were otherwise avoided. Workers’ CO\(_{2}\) preferences for themselves showed no clear-cut pattern. We suggest that workers avoid both atmospheric and high CO\(_{2}\) concentrations not because they are detrimental for themselves, but because of their consequences for the symbiotic partner. Whether the preferred CO\(_{2}\) concentrations are beneficial for symbiont growth remains to be investigated, as well as whether the observed preferences for fungus-rearing influences the ants’ decisions where to excavate new chambers across the soil profile.
Aspergillus (A.) fumigatus is an opportunistic fungal mold inducing invasive aspergillosis (IA) in immunocompromised patients. Although antifungal activity of human natural killer (NK) cells was shown in previous studies, the underlying cellular mechanisms and pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs) are still unknown. Using flow cytometry we were able to show that the fluorescence positivity of the surface receptor CD56 significantly decreased upon fungal contact. To visualize the interaction site of NK cells and A. fumigatus we used SEM, CLSM and dSTORM techniques, which clearly demonstrated that NK cells directly interact with A. fumigatus via CD56 and that CD56 is re-organized and accumulated at this interaction site time-dependently. The inhibition of the cytoskeleton showed that the receptor re-organization was an active process dependent on actin re-arrangements. Furthermore, we could show that CD56 plays a role in the fungus mediated NK cell activation, since blocking of CD56 surface receptor reduced fungal mediated NK cell activation and reduced cytokine secretion. These results confirmed the direct interaction of NK cells and A. fumigatus, leading to the conclusion that CD56 is a pathogen recognition receptor. These findings give new insights into the functional role of CD56 in the pathogen recognition during the innate immune response.
Animal circadian clocks consist of central and peripheral pacemakers, which are coordinated to produce daily rhythms in physiology and behaviour. Despite its importance for optimal performance and health, the mechanism of clock coordination is poorly understood. Here we dissect the pathway through which the circadian clock of Drosophila imposes daily rhythmicity to the pattern of adult emergence. Rhythmicity depends on the coupling between the brain clock and a peripheral clock in the prothoracic gland (PG), which produces the steroid hormone, ecdysone. Time information from the central clock is transmitted via the neuropeptide, sNPF, to non-clock neurons that produce the neuropeptide, PTTH. These secretory neurons then forward time information to the PG clock. We also show that the central clock exerts a dominant role on the peripheral clock. This use of two coupled clocks could serve as a paradigm to understand how daily steroid hormone rhythms are generated in animals.
The MuvB multiprotein complex, together with B-MYB and FOXM1 (MMB-FOXM1), plays an essential role in cell cycle progression by regulating the transcription of genes required for mitosis and cytokinesis. In many tumors, B-MYB and FOXM1 are overexpressed as part of the proliferation signature. However, the transcriptional targets that are important for oncogenesis have not been identified. Given that mitotic kinesins are highly expressed in cancer cells and that selected kinesins have been reported as target genes of MMB-FOXM1, we sought to determine which mitotic kinesins are directly regulated by MMB-FOXM1. We demonstrate that six mitotic kinesins and two microtubule-associated non-motor proteins (MAPs) CEP55 and PRC1 are direct transcriptional targets of MuvB, B-MYB and FOXM1 in breast cancer cells.
Suppression of KIF23 and PRC1 strongly suppressed proliferation of MDA-MB-231 cells. The set of MMB-FOXM1 regulated kinesins genes and 4 additional kinesins which we referred to as the mitotic kinesin signature (MKS) is linked to poor outcome in breast cancer patients. Thus, mitotic kinesins could be used as prognostic biomarker and could be potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of breast cancer.
African trypanosomiasis is a disease endemic to sub-Saharan Africa. It affects humans as well as wild and domestic animals. The human form of the disease is known as sleeping sickness and the animal form as nagana, which are usually fatal if left untreated. The cause of African trypanosomiasis is the unicellular parasite Trypanosoma brucei. During its life cycle, Trypanosoma brucei shuttles between a mammalian host and the tsetse fly vector. In the mammalian host the parasite multiplies as bloodstream form (BSF) extracellularly in the bloodstream or the lymphatic system. Survival of BSF parasites relies on immune evasion by antigenic variation of surface proteins because its extracellular lifestyle leads to direct exposure to immune responses. At any given time each BSF cell expresses a single type of variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) on its surface from a large repertoire. The active VSG is transcribed from one of 15 specialized subtelomeric domains, termed bloodstream expression sites (BESs). The remaining 14 BESs are silenced. This monoallelic expression and periodic switching of the expressed VSG enables to escape the immune response and to establish a persistent infection in the mammalian host. During developmental differentiation from BSF to the insect vector-resident procyclic form (PCF), the active BES is transcriptionally silenced to stop VSG transcription. Thus, all 15 BESs are inactive in the PCF cells as surface protein expression is developmentally regulated.
Previous reports have shown that the telomere complex components TbTRF, TbRAP1 and TbTIF2 are involved in VSG transcriptional regulation. However, the precise nature of their contribution remains unclear. In addition, no information is available about the role of telomeres in the initiation and regulation of developmental BES silencing. To gain insights into the regulatory mechanisms of telomeres on VSG transcription and developmental repression it is therefore essential to identify the complete composition of the trypanosome telomere complex.
To this end, we used two complementary biochemical approaches and quantitative label-free interactomics to determine the composition of telomere protein complexes in T. brucei. Firstly, using a telomeric pull-down assay we found 17 potential telomere-binding proteins including the known telomere-binding proteins TbTRF and TbTIF2. Secondly, by performing a co-immunoprecipitation experiment to elucidate TbTRF interactions we co-purified five proteins. All of these five proteins were also enriched with telomeric DNA in the pull-down assay.
To validate these data, I characterized one of the proteins found in both experiments (TelBP1). In BSF cells, TelBP1 co-localizes with TbTRF and interacts with already described telomere-binding proteins such as TbTRF, TbTIF2 and TbRAP1 indicating that TelBP1 is a novel component of the telomere complex in trypanosomes. Interestingly, protein interaction studies in PCF cells suggested a different telomere complex composition compared to BSF cells. In contrast to known members of the telomere complex, TelBP1 is dispensable for cell viability indicating that its function might be uncoupled from the known telomere-binding proteins. Overexpression of TelBP1 had also no effect on cell viability, but led to the discovery of two additional shorter isoforms of TelBP1. However, their source and function remained elusive.
Although TelBP1 is not essential for cell viability, western blot analysis revealed a 4-fold upregulation of TelBP1 in the BSF stage compared to the PCF stage supporting the concept of a dynamic telomere complex composition. We observed that TelBP1 influences the kinetics of transcriptional BES silencing during developmental transition from BSF to PCF. Deletion of TelBP1 caused faster BES silencing compared to wild-type parasites.
Taken together, TelBP1 function illustrates that developmental BES silencing is a fine-tuned process, which involves stage-specific changes in telomere complex formation.
Obligate intracellular Chlamydia trachomatis replicate in a membrane-bound vacuole called inclusion, which serves as a signaling interface with the host cell. Here, we show that the chlamydial deubiquitinating enzyme (Cdu) 1 localizes in the inclusion membrane and faces the cytosol with the active deubiquitinating enzyme domain. The structure of this domain revealed high similarity to mammalian deubiquitinases with a unique α-helix close to the substrate-binding pocket. We identified the apoptosis regulator Mcl-1 as a target that interacts with Cdu1 and is stabilized by deubiquitination at the chlamydial inclusion. A chlamydial transposon insertion mutant in the Cdu1-encoding gene exhibited increased Mcl-1 and inclusion ubiquitination and reduced Mcl-1 stabilization. Additionally, inactivation of Cdu1 led to increased sensitivity of C. trachomatis for IFNγ and impaired infection in mice. Thus, the chlamydial inclusion serves as an enriched site for a deubiquitinating activity exerting a function in selective stabilization of host proteins and protection from host defense.
Human herpesvirus 6A (HHV-6A) and 6B (HHV-6B) are two different species of betaherpesviruses that integrate into sub-telomeric ends of human chromosomes, for which different prevalence rates of integration have been reported. It has been demonstrated that integrated viral genome is stable and is fully retained. However, study of chromosomally integrated viral genome in individuals carrying inherited HHV-6 (iciHHV-6) showed unexpected number of viral DR copies. Hence, we created an in vitro infection model and studied retention of full or partial viral genome over a period of time. We observed an exceptional event where cells retained viral direct repeats (DRs) alone in the absence of the full viral genome. Finally, we found evidence for non-telomeric integration of HHV-6A DR in both cultured cells and in an iciHHV-6 individual. Our results shed light on several novel features of HHV-6A chromosomal integration and provide valuable information for future screening techniques.
The instructive component of waggle dance communication has been shown to increase resource uptake of Apis mellifera colonies in highly heterogeneous resource environments, but an assessment of its relevance in temperate landscapes with different levels of resource heterogeneity is currently lacking. We hypothesized that the advertisement of resource locations via dance communication would be most relevant in highly heterogeneous landscapes with large spatial variation of floral resources. To test our hypothesis, we placed 24 Apis mellifera colonies with either disrupted or unimpaired instructive component of dance communication in eight Central European agricultural landscapes that differed in heterogeneity and resource availability. We monitored colony weight change and pollen harvest as measure of foraging success. Dance disruption did not significantly alter colony weight change, but decreased pollen harvest compared to the communicating colonies by 40%. There was no general effect of resource availability on nectar or pollen foraging success, but the effect of landscape heterogeneity on nectar uptake was stronger when resource availability was high. In contrast to our hypothesis, the effects of disrupted bee communication on nectar and pollen foraging success were not stronger in landscapes with heterogeneous compared to homogenous resource environments. Our results indicate that in temperate regions intra-colonial communication of resource locations benefits pollen foraging more than nectar foraging, irrespective of landscape heterogeneity. We conclude that the so far largely unexplored role of dance communication in pollen foraging requires further consideration as pollen is a crucial resource for colony development and health.
Some members of the physiological human microbiome occasionally cause life-threatening disease even in immunocompetent individuals. A prime example of such a commensal pathogen is Neisseria meningitidis, which normally resides in the human nasopharynx but is also a leading cause of sepsis and epidemic meningitis. Using N. meningitidis as model organism, we tested the hypothesis that virulence of commensal pathogens is a consequence of within host evolution and selection of invasive variants due to mutations at contingency genes, a mechanism called phase variation. In line with the hypothesis that phase variation evolved as an adaptation to colonize diverse hosts, computational comparisons of all 27 to date completely sequenced and annotated meningococcal genomes retrieved from public databases showed that contingency genes are indeed enriched for genes involved in host interactions. To assess within-host genetic changes in meningococci, we further used ultra-deep whole-genome sequencing of throat-blood strain pairs isolated from four patients suffering from invasive meningococcal disease. We detected up to three mutations per strain pair, affecting predominantly contingency genes involved in type IV pilus biogenesis. However, there was not a single (set) of mutation(s) that could invariably be found in all four pairs of strains. Phenotypic assays further showed that these genetic changes were generally not associated with increased serum resistance, higher fitness in human blood ex vivo or differences in the interaction with human epithelial and endothelial cells in vitro. In conclusion, we hypothesize that virulence of meningococci results from accidental emergence of invasive variants during carriage and without within host evolution of invasive phenotypes during disease progression in vivo.
Natural enemies have been shown to be effective agents for controlling insect pests in crops. However, it remains unclear how different natural enemy guilds contribute to the regulation of pests and how this might be modulated by landscape context. In a field exclusion experiment in oilseed rape (OSR), we found that parasitoids and ground-dwelling predators acted in a complementary way to suppress pollen beetles, suggesting that pest control by multiple enemies attacking a pest during different periods of its occurrence in the field improves biological control efficacy. The density of pollen beetle significantly decreased with an increased proportion of non-crop habitats in the landscape. Parasitism had a strong effect on pollen beetle numbers in landscapes with a low or intermediate proportion of non-crop habitats, but not in complex landscapes. Our results underline the importance of different natural enemy guilds to pest regulation in crops, and demonstrate how biological control can be strengthened by complementarity among natural enemies. The optimization of natural pest control by adoption of specific management practices at local and landscape scales, such as establishing non-crop areas, low-impact tillage, and temporal crop rotation, could significantly reduce dependence on pesticides and foster yield stability through ecological intensification in agriculture.
Web spiders synthesize silk fibres, nature’s toughest biomaterial, through the controlled assembly of fibroin proteins, so-called spidroins. The highly conserved spidroin N-terminal domain (NTD) is a pH-driven self-assembly device that connects spidroins to super-molecules in fibres. The degree to which forces of self-assembly is conserved across spider glands and species is currently unknown because quantitative measures are missing. Here, we report the comparative investigation of spidroin NTDs originating from the major ampullate glands of the spider species Euprosthenops australis, Nephila clavipes, Latrodectus hesperus, and Latrodectus geometricus. We characterized equilibrium thermodynamics and kinetics of folding and self-association using dynamic light scattering, stopped-flow fluorescence and circular dichroism spectroscopy in combination with thermal and chemical denaturation experiments. We found cooperative two-state folding on a sub-millisecond time scale through a late transition state of all four domains. Stability was compromised by repulsive electrostatic forces originating from clustering of point charges on the NTD surface required for function. pH-driven dimerization proceeded with characteristic fast kinetics yielding high affinities. Results showed that energetics and kinetics of NTD self-assembly are highly conserved across spider species despite the different silk mechanical properties and web geometries they produce.
The highly motile and versatile protozoan pathogen Trypanosoma brucei undergoes a complex life cycle in the tsetse fly. Here we introduce the host insect as an expedient model environment for microswimmer research, as it allows examination of microbial motion within a diversified, secluded and yet microscopically tractable space. During their week-long journey through the different microenvironments of the fly´s interior organs, the incessantly swimming trypanosomes cross various barriers and confined surroundings, with concurrently occurring major changes of parasite cell architecture. Multicolour light sheet fluorescence microscopy provided information about tsetse tissue topology with unprecedented resolution and allowed the first 3D analysis of the infection process. High-speed fluorescence microscopy illuminated the versatile behaviour of trypanosome developmental stages, ranging from solitary motion and near-wall swimming to collective motility in synchronised swarms and in confinement. We correlate the microenvironments and trypanosome morphologies to high-speed motility data, which paves the way for cross-disciplinary microswimmer research in a naturally evolved environment.
The Kryptolebias marmoratus is unique because it is the only selffertilizing hermaphroditic vertebrate, known to date. It primarily reproduces by internal self-fertilization in a mixed ovary/testis gonad. Here, we report on a high-quality genome assembly for the K. marmoratus South Korea (SK) strain highlighting the diversity and distribution of transposable elements (TEs). We find that K. marmoratus genome maintains number and composition of TEs. This can be an important genomic attribute promoting genome recombination in this selfing fish, while, in addition to a mixed mating strategy, it may also represent a mechanism contributing to the evolutionary adaptation to ecological pressure of the species. Future work should help clarify this point further once genomic information is gathered for other taxa of the family Rivulidae that do not self-fertilize. We provide a valuable genome resource that highlights the potential impact of TEs on the genome evolution of a fish species with an uncommon life cycle.
Effects of timing and herbivory on a grass-endophyte association and its trophic interactions
(2017)
I.) Plant associated microorganisms can affect the plant`s interaction with herbivores and higher trophic levels. For instance, endophytic fungi infecting aerial plant parts of grass species produce bioactive alkaloids that can negatively affect species from higher trophic levels, indicating a defensive mutualism between the grass and the endophyte. However, beneficial insects can also be negatively affected by the endophyte, which might question the mutualistic effect of endophytic fungi. On the other hand, grass-endophytes are affected by environmental conditions and species interactions. Grazing can increase endophyte frequencies in natural habitats. Furthermore, endophyte mediated effects on herbivores are most pronounced during warm summers following rainy springs. In this study, we investigated whether endophyte derived alkaloids cascade up a food chain (chapter II) and whether their concentrations depend on plant age and season (chapter III). Further we analysed, whether altered herbivore phenology affects the endophytic fungus (chapter IV) and whether endophyte derived alkaloid production is induced by different herbivore species (chapter V).
II.) In our first experimental study we analysed whether grass-endophyte derived alkaloids decreased the performance of two ladybird species feeding on aphids exclusively reared on endophyte infected grass (6 weeks young grass). Further, we screened species from three trophic levels (grass, herbivores and aphid predators) for their alkaloid content using two year old infected grass as diet for herbivores. We established an UPLC-MS method to detect and quantify the amount of the endophyte derived alkaloids peramine and lolitrem B extracted from the organic plant and insect material. Performance parameters of ladybirds revealed little differences between ladybirds fed on aphids reared on endophyte infected and non-infected grass, which probably resulted from low alkaloid concentrations in the young (6-weeks old) endophyte infected grass used in this part of the study. Alkaloid quantification of the two year old endophyte infected grass, herbivores and aphid predators revealed similar concentrations between grass and aphids, while aphid predators contained approximately half of that amount which still exceeded the bioactive threshold. We conclude that alkaloids produced by grass-endophytes cascade up the food chain and are responsible for fitness disadvantages of higher trophic levels.
III.) In the second study we investigated the impact of plant age and seasonal timing on grass-endophyte growth and alkaloid production. Plants were sown in April of 2013 and sampled monthly over 30 consecutive months. Endophyte growth was quantified with real-time PCR (qPCR) and alkaloid concentrations with UPLC-MS. We showed that alkaloid concentrations and fungal growth followed a seasonal rhythmicity and that alkaloid concentrations increased with plant age. Alkaloid concentrations peak during summer, when also herbivore abundances are high. Consequently, we conclude that plant age and season contribute to the toxicity of endophytes on grass herbivores
IV.) In the third study we simulated earlier spring arrival of aphids by enhancing aphid abundance on endophyte infected and endophyte-free grass in spring and analysed responses across three trophic levels. Enhanced aphid abundance in spring caused higher aphid abundances during the study period. Predators stayed unaffected by increased herbivore abundances; however they did level aphid numbers within two weeks after arrival on the plants, independent of aphid abundance. Grass-endophyte showed a time delayed growth, two weeks after aphid abundance peak and after predators already controlled aphid infestations on the plants. We conclude that phenology shifts of herbivorous insects can affect multi-trophic interactions leading to desynchronizations between phenologies of interacting species and mismatches in food-webs.
V.) In the fourth study we analysed whether herbivores induce endophyte growth and alkaloid production and whether different types of herbivores induce specific alkaloid production. We applied three different herbivore treatments on endophyte infected grass over 18 weeks. Locust herbivory increased the insect deterring alkaloid peramine and clipping of plants (simulation of grazing livestock) increased the vertebrate toxic alkaloid lolitrem B. Aphid herbivory did not affect endophyte derived alkaloid concentrations. Endophyte responses to herbivory were species specific which indicates a primarily plant protecting role of alkaloid synthesis in endophyte infected plants and a close chemical crosstalk between interacting species.
VI.) In summary, we showed that endophyte derived alkaloids affect higher trophic levels and that alkaloid concentrations in the plant depend on prevalent herbivore species, plant age and seasonal timing. Our results indicate a close chemical crosstalk between the host plant and the endophytic fungus which is susceptible to environmental changes altering the endophyte`s alkaloid production in plants. We gained insights into the grass-endophyte symbiosis in ecological contexts and conclude that several factors determine the herbivore toxic potential of endophytic fungi and thereby their plant mutualistic or parasitic character. Future studies should investigate the mechanisms behind the herbivore induced alkaloid concentration increase, shown in this thesis, especially whether plant signals mediate the endophyte response. Furthermore it would be interesting to study the induction of indirect endophyte mediated defence and how it affects multi-trophic level interactions.
Background:
Intrauterine exposure to gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) confers a lifelong increased risk for metabolic and other complex disorders to the offspring. GDM-induced epigenetic modifications modulating gene regulation and persisting into later life are generally assumed to mediate these elevated disease susceptibilities. To identify candidate genes for fetal programming, we compared genome-wide methylation patterns of fetal cord bloods (FCBs) from GDM and control pregnancies.
Methods and results:
Using Illumina’s 450K methylation arrays and following correction for multiple testing, 65 CpG sites (52 associated with genes) displayed significant methylation differences between GDM and control samples. Four candidate genes, ATP5A1, MFAP4, PRKCH, and SLC17A4, from our methylation screen and one, HIF3A, from the literature were validated by bisulfite pyrosequencing. The effects remained significant after adjustment for the confounding factors maternal BMI, gestational week, and fetal sex in a multivariate regression model. In general, GDM effects on FCB methylation were more pronounced in women with insulin-dependent GDM who had a more severe metabolic phenotype than women with dietetically treated GDM.
Conclusions:
Our study supports an association between maternal GDM and the epigenetic status of the exposed offspring. Consistent with a multifactorial disease model, the observed FCB methylation changes are of small effect size but affect multiple genes/loci. The identified genes are primary candidates for transmitting GDM effects to the next generation. They also may provide useful biomarkers for the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of adverse prenatal exposures.
Septins are a highly conserved family of small GTPases that form cytoskeletal filaments. Their cellular functions, especially in the nervous system, still remain largely enigmatic, but there are accumulating lines of evidence that septins play important roles in neuronal physiology and pathology. In order to further dissect septin function in the nervous system a detailed temporal resolved analysis in the genetically well tractable model vertebrate zebrafish (Danio rerio) is crucially necessary. To close this knowledge gap we here provide a reference dataset describing the expression of selected septins (sept3, sept5a and sept5b) in the zebrafish central nervous system. Strikingly, proliferation zones are devoid of expression of all three septins investigated, suggesting that they have a role in post-mitotic neural cells. Our finding that three septins are mainly expressed in non-proliferative regions was further confirmed by double-stainings with a proliferative marker. Our RNA in situ hybridization (ISH) study, detecting sept3, sept5a and sept5b mRNAs, shows that all three septins are expressed in largely overlapping regions of the developing brain. However, the expression of sept5a is much more confined compared to sept3 and sept5b. In contrast, the expression of all the three analyzed septins is largely similar in the adult brain.
Automatic image reconstruction is critical to cope with steadily increasing data from advanced microscopy. We describe here the Fiji macro 3D ART VeSElecT which we developed to study synaptic vesicles in electron tomograms. We apply this tool to quantify vesicle properties (i) in embryonic Danio rerio 4 and 8 days past fertilization (dpf) and (ii) to compare Caenorhabditis elegans N2 neuromuscular junctions (NMJ) wild-type and its septin mutant (unc-59(e261)). We demonstrate development-specific and mutant-specific changes in synaptic vesicle pools in both models. We confirm the functionality of our macro by applying our 3D ART VeSElecT on zebrafish NMJ showing smaller vesicles in 8 dpf embryos then 4 dpf, which was validated by manual reconstruction of the vesicle pool. Furthermore, we analyze the impact of C. elegans septin mutant unc-59(e261) on vesicle pool formation and vesicle size. Automated vesicle registration and characterization was implemented in Fiji as two macros (registration and measurement). This flexible arrangement allows in particular reducing false positives by an optional manual revision step. Preprocessing and contrast enhancement work on image-stacks of 1nm/pixel in x and y direction. Semi-automated cell selection was integrated. 3D ART VeSElecT removes interfering components, detects vesicles by 3D segmentation and calculates vesicle volume and diameter (spherical approximation, inner/outer diameter). Results are collected in color using the RoiManager plugin including the possibility of manual removal of non-matching confounder vesicles. Detailed evaluation considered performance (detected vesicles) and specificity (true vesicles) as well as precision and recall. We furthermore show gain in segmentation and morphological filtering compared to learning based methods and a large time gain compared to manual segmentation. 3D ART VeSElecT shows small error rates and its speed gain can be up to 68 times faster in comparison to manual annotation. Both automatic and semi-automatic modes are explained including a tutorial.
Numerous studies revealed a positive relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, suggesting that biodiverse environments may not only enhance ecosystem processes, but also benefit individual ecosystem members by, for example, providing a higher diversity of resources. Whether and how the number of available resources affects resource collection and subsequently consumers (e.g., through impacting functions associated with resources) have, however, been little investigated, although a better understanding of this relationship may help explain why the abundance and richness of many animal species typically decline with decreasing plant (resource) diversity. Using a social bee species as model (Tetragonula carbonaria), we investigated how plant species richness—recorded for study sites located in different habitats—and associated resource abundance affected the diversity and functionality (here defined as nutritional content and antimicrobial activity) of resources (i.e., pollen, nectar, and resin) collected by a generalist herbivorous consumer. The diversity of both pollen and resin collected strongly increased with increasing plant/tree species richness, while resource abundance was only positively correlated with resin diversity. These findings suggest that bees maximize resource diversity intake in (resource) diverse habitats. Collecting more diverse resources did, however, not increase their functionality, which appeared to be primarily driven by the surrounding (plant) source community in our study. In generalist herbivores, maximizing resource diversity intake may therefore primarily secure collection of sufficient amounts of resources across the entire foraging season, but it also ensures that the allocated resources meet all functional needs. Decreasing available resource diversity may thus impact consumers primarily by reduced resource abundance, but also by reduced resource functionality, particularly when resources of high functionality (e.g., from specific plant species) become scarce.
During my PhD I studied two principal biological aspects employing Drosophila melanogaster. Therefore, this study is divided into Part I and II.
Part I: Bruchpilot and Complexin interact to regulate synaptic vesicle tethering to the
active zone cytomatrix
At the presynaptic active zone (AZ) synaptic vesicles (SVs) are often physically linked to an electron-dense cytomatrix – a process referred to as “SV tethering”. This process serves to concentrate SVs in close proximity to their release sites before contacting the SNARE complex for subsequent fusion (Hallermann and Silver, 2013). In Drosophila, the AZ protein Bruchpilot (BRP) is part of the proteinous cytomatrix at which SVs accumulate (Kittel et al., 2006b; Wagh et al., 2006; Fouquet et al., 2009). Intriguingly, truncation of only 1% of the C-terminal region of BRP results in a severe defect in SV tethering to this AZ scaffold (hence named brpnude; Hallermann et al., 2010b).
Consistent with these findings, cell-specific overexpression of a C-terminal BRP fragment, named mBRPC-tip (corresponds to 1% absent in brpnude; m = mobile) phenocopied the brpnude mutant in behavioral and functional experiments. These data indicate that mBRPC-tip suffices to saturate putative SV binding sites, which induced a functional tethering deficit at motoneuronal AZs. However, the molecular identity of the BRP complement to tether SVs to the presynaptic AZ scaffold remains unknown. Moreover, within larval motoneurons membrane-attached C-terminal portions of BRP were sufficient to tether SVs to sites outside of the AZ. Based on this finding a genetic screen was designed to identify BRP interactors in vivo. This screen identified Complexin (CPX), which is known to inhibit spontaneous SV fusion and to enhance stimulus evoked SV release (Huntwork and Littleton, 2007; Cho et al., 2010; Martin et al., 2011). However, so far CPX has not been associated with a function upstream of priming/docking and release of SVs. This work provides morphological and functional evidence, which suggests that CPX promotes recruitment of SVs to the AZ and thereby curtails synaptic short-term depression. Together, the presented findings indicate a functional interaction between BRP and CPX at Drosophila AZs.
Part II: The Adhesion-GPCR Latrophilin/CIRL shapes mechanosensation
The calcium independent receptor of α-latrotoxin (CIRL), also named Latrophilin, represents a prototypic Adhesion class G-protein coupled-receptor (aGPCR). Initially, Latrophilin was identified based on its capacity to bind the α-component of latrotoxin (α-LTX; Davletov et al., 1996; Krasnoperov et al., 1996), which triggers massive exocytotic activity from neurons of the peripheral nervous system (Scheer et al., 1984; Umbach et al., 1998; Orlova et al., 2000). As a result Latrophilin is considered to play a role in synaptic transmission. Later on, Latrophilins have been associated with other biological processes including tissue polarity (Langenhan et al., 2009), fertility (Prömel et al., 2012) and synaptogenesis (Silva et al., 2011). However, thus far its subcellular localization and the identity of endogenous ligands, two aspects crucial for the comprehension of Latrophilin’s in vivo function, remain enigmatic.
Drosophila contains only one latrophilin homolog, named dCirl, whose function has not been investigated thus far.
This study demonstrates abundant dCirl expression throughout the nervous system of Drosophila larvae. dCirlKO animals are viable and display no defects in development and neuronal differentiation. However, dCirl appears to influence the dimension of the postsynaptic sub-synaptic reticulum (SSR), which was accompanied by an increase in the postsynaptic Discs-large abundance (DLG). In contrast, morphological and functional properties of presynaptic motoneurons were not compromised by the removal of dCirl. Instead, dCirl is required for the perception of mechanical challenges (acoustic-, tactile- and proprioceptive stimuli) through specialized mechanosensory devices, chordotonal organs (Eberl, 1999). The data indicate that dCirl modulates the sensitivity of chordotonal neurons towards mechanical stimulation and thereby adjusts their input-output relation. Genetic interaction analyses suggest that adaption of the molecular mechanotransduction machinery by dCirl may underlie this process. Together, these results uncover an unexpected function of Latrophilin/dCIRL in mechanosensation and imply general modulatory roles of aGPCR in mechanoception.
Epicardium-derived cells (EPDC) and atrial stromal cells (ASC) display cardio-regenerative potential, but the molecular details are still unexplored. Signals which induce activation, migration and differentiation of these cells are largely unknown. Here we have isolated rat ventricular EPDC and rat/human ASC and performed genetic and proteomic profiling. EPDC and ASC expressed epicardial/mesenchymal markers (WT-1, Tbx18, CD73,CD90, CD44, CD105), cardiac markers (Gata4, Tbx5, troponin T) and also contained phosphocreatine. We used cell surface biotinylation to isolate plasma membrane proteins of rEPDC and hASC, Nano-liquid chromatography with subsequent mass spectrometry and bioinformatics analysis identified 396 rat and 239 human plasma membrane proteins with 149 overlapping proteins. Functional GO-term analysis revealed several significantly enriched categories related to extracellular matrix (ECM), cell migration/differentiation, immunology or angiogenesis. We identified receptors for ephrin and growth factors (IGF, PDGF, EGF, anthrax toxin) known to be involved in cardiac repair and regeneration. Functional category enrichment identified clusters around integrins, PI3K/Akt-signaling and various cardiomyopathies. Our study indicates that EPDC and ASC have a similar molecular phenotype related to cardiac healing/regeneration. The cell surface proteome repository will help to further unravel the molecular details of their cardio-regenerative potential and their role in cardiac diseases.
Hangover links nuclear RNA signaling to cAMP regulation via the phosphodiesterase 4d ortholog dunce
(2017)
The hangover gene defines a cellular stress pathway that is required for rapid ethanol tolerance in Drosophila melanogaster. To understand how cellular stress changes neuronal function, we analyzed Hangover function on a cellular and neuronal level. We provide evidence that Hangover acts as a nuclear RNA binding protein and we identified the phosphodiesterase 4d ortholog dunce as a target RNA. We generated a transcript-specific dunce mutant that is impaired not only in ethanol tolerance but also in the cellular stress response. At the neuronal level, Dunce and Hangover are required in the same neuron pair to regulate experience-dependent motor output. Within these neurons, two cyclic AMP (cAMP)-dependent mechanisms balance the degree of tolerance. The balance is achieved by feedback regulation of Hangover and dunce transcript levels. This study provides insight into how nuclear Hangover/RNA signaling is linked to the cytoplasmic regulation of cAMP levels and results in neuronal adaptation and behavioral changes.
The availability of pollen in agricultural landscapes is essential for the successful growth and reproduction of honey bee colonies (Apis mellifera L.). The quantity and diversity of collected pollen can influence the growth and health of honey bee colonies, but little is known about the influence of landscape structure on pollen diet. In a field experiment, we rotated 16 honey bee colonies across 16 agricultural landscapes, used traps to collect samples of collected pollen and observed intra-colonial dance communication to gain information about foraging distances. DNA metabarcoding was applied to analyze mixed pollen samples. Neither the amount of collected pollen nor pollen diversity was related to landscape diversity. However, we found a strong seasonal variation in the amount and diversity of collected pollen in all sites independent of landscape diversity. The observed increase in foraging distances with decreasing landscape diversity suggests that honey bees compensated for lower landscape diversity by increasing their pollen foraging range in order to maintain pollen amount and diversity. Our results underscore the importance of a diverse pollen diet for honey bee colonies. Agri-environmental schemes aiming to support pollinators should focus on possible spatial and temporal gaps in pollen availability and diversity in agricultural landscapes.
1. Today honey bee colonies face a wide range of challenges in modern agricultural landscapes which entails the need for a comprehensive investigation of honey bees in a landscape context and the assessment of environmental risks. Within this dissertation the pollen foraging of honey bee colonies is studied in different agricultural landscapes to gain insight into the use of pollen resources and the influence of landscape structure across the season. General suggestions for landscape management to support honey bees and other pollinators are derived.
2. Decoding of waggle dances and a subsequent spatial foraging analysis are used as methods in Chapters 4 and 5 to study honey bee colonies in agricultural landscapes. The recently developed metabarcoding of mixed pollen samples was applied for the first time in honey bee foraging ecology and allowed for a detailed analysis of pollen, that was trapped from honey bees in front hive entrances (Chapter 6).
3. Pollen identification through molecular sequencing and DNA barcoding has been proposed as an alternative approach to light microscopy, which still is a tedious and error-prone task. In this study we assessed mixed pollen probes through next-generation sequencing and developed a bioinformatic workflow to analyse these high-throughput data with a newly created reference database. To evaluate the feasibility, we compared results from classical identification based on light microscopy from the same samples with our sequencing results. Abundance estimations from sequencing data were significantly correlated with counted abundances through light microscopy. Next-generation sequencing thus presents a useful and efficient workflow to identify pollen at the genus and species level without requiring specialized palynological expert knowledge.
4. During maize flowering, four observation hives were placed in and rotated between 11 landscapes covering a gradient in maize acreage. A higher foraging frequency on maize fields compared to other landuse types showed that maize is an intensively used pollen resource for honey bee colonies. Mean foraging distances were significantly shorter for maize pollen than for other pollen origins, indicating that effort is put into collecting a diverse pollen diet. The percentage of maize pollen foragers did not increase with maize acreage in the landscape and was not reduced by grassland area as an alternative pollen resource. Our findings allow estimating the distance-related exposure risk of honey bee colonies to pollen from surrounding maize fields treated with systemic insecticides.
5. It is unknown how an increasing area of mass-flowering crops like oilseed rape (OSR) or a decrease of semi-natural habitats (SNH) change the temporal and spatial availability of pollen resources for honey bee colonies, and thus foraging distances and frequency in different habitat types. Sixteen observation hives were placed in and rotated between 16 agricultural landscapes with independent gradients of OSR and SNH area within 2 km to analyze foraging distances and frequencies. SNH and OSR reduced foraging distance at different spatial scales and depending on season, with possible benefits for the performance of honey bee colonies. Frequency of pollen foragers per habitat type was equally high for SNH, grassland and OSR fields, but lower for other crops and forest. In landscapes with a small proportion of SNH a significantly higher density of pollen foragers on SNH was observed, indicating the limitation of pollen resources in simple agricultural landscapes and the importance of SNH.
6. Quantity and diversity of collected pollen can influence the growth and health of honey bee colonies, but little is known about the influence of landscape structure on pollen diet. In a field experiment we rotated 16 honey bee colonies across 16 agricultural landscapes (see also Chapter 5), used traps to get samples of collected pollen and observed the intra-colonial dance communication to gain information about foraging distances. Neither the amount of collected pollen nor pollen diversity were related to landscape diversity. The revealed increase of foraging distances with decreasing landscape diversity suggests that honey bees compensate for a lower landscape diversity by increasing their pollen foraging range in order to maintain pollen amount and diversity.
7. Our results show the importance of diverse pollen resources for honey bee colonies in agricultural landscapes. Beside the risk of exposure to pesticides honey bees face the risk of nutritional deficiency with implications for their health. By modifying landscape composition and therefore availability of resources we are able to contribute to the wellbeing of honey bees. Agri-environmental schemes aiming to support pollinators should focus on possible spatial and temporal gaps in pollen availability and diversity in agricultural landscapes.
A promising new approach for the treatment of human cancer is the use of oncolytic viruses, which exhibit tumor tropism. One of the top candidates in this area is the oncolytic vaccinia virus (VACV), which has already shown promising results in animal studies and in clinical trials. However, due to discrepancies in both innate and adaptive immunity between mice and men the evaluation of the vaccinia virus’ interactions with the host immune system in mice are not fully conclusive of what is actually happening in human cancer patients after systemic administration of vaccinia virus. Also, ethical and legal concerns as well as risk of potential toxicity limit research involving human patients. Therefore, a good in vivo model for testing interactions between vaccinia virus and human immune cells, avoiding the numerous limitations and risks associated with human studies, could be a humanized mouse model.
LIVP-1.1.1, GLV-2b372, GLV-1h68, GLV-1h375, GLV-1h376 and GLV-1h377 VACVs were provided by Genelux Corporation. GLV-2b372 was constructed by inserting TurboFP635 expression cassette into the J2R locus of the parental LIVP-1.1.1. GLV-1h375, -1h376 and -1h377 VACVs encode the human CTLA4-blocking single-chain antibody (CTLA4 scAb). Performed replication and cytotoxicity assays demonstrated that all six viruses were able to infect, replicate in and kill human tumor cells in virus-dose- and time-dependent fashion. CTLA4 scAb and β-glucuronidase (GusA) expression as well as viral titers in GLV-1h376-infected cells were analyzed by ELISA, β-glucuronidase assay and standard plaque assay, respectively, and compared. An excellent correlation with correlation coefficients R2>0.9806 were observed. GLV-1h376-encoded CTLA4 scAb was successfully purified from supernatants of infected CV-1 cells and demonstrated in vitro affinity to its human CTLA4 target and lack of cross-reactivity to mouse CTLA4. CTLA4 scAb functionality was confirmed in Jurkat cells. LIVP-1.1.1, GLV-2b372, GLV-1h68 and GLV-1h376 were next studied in non-tumorous and/or tumor-bearing humanized mice.
It was demonstrated that injection of human CD34+ stem cells into the liver of preconditioned newborn NSG mice let to a successful systemic reconstitution with human immune cells. CD19+ B cells, CD4 and CD8 single positive CD3+ T cell, NKp46+CD56- and NKp46+CD56+ NK cells as well as CD33+ myeloid cells developed. At early time points after engraftment, majority of the human hematopoietic cells detected in the mouse blood were CD19+ B cells and only a small portion were CD3+ T cells. With time a significant change in CD19+/CD3+ ratio was reported with a decrease of B cells and an increase of T cells. Implantation of A549 cells under the skin of those humanized NSG mice resulted in a progressive tumor growth, described for the first time in this thesis. Successful colonization of subcutaneous A549 tumors with VACVs was visualized and demonstrated by detection of virus-mediated TurboFP635 and GFP expression as well as by standard plaque assay and immunohistochemistry. The human CD45+ cell population in tumors was represented mainly by NKp46+CD56bright NK cells and a large portion of activated CD4+ and cytotoxic CD8+ T cells. However, no significant differences were observed between control and LIVP-1.1.1-infected tumors, suggesting that the recruitment of NK and activated T cells were more tumor tissue specific than virus-dependent. Unfortunately, virus-mediated CTLA4 scAb expression in the GLV-1h376-infected tumors was also not able to significantly increase activation of T cells compared to control and GLV-1h68-treated mice. Importantly, ELISA, β-glucuronidase and standard plaque assays showed an excellent correlation with correlation coefficients R2>0.9454 between CTLA4 scAb, GusA concentrations and viral titers in tumor samples from those GLV-1h376 treated mice.
T cells isolated from the spleens of such control or GLV-1h68- or -1h376-treated A549 tumor-bearing mice were functional and could successfully be activated with human T cells activation beads. However, although no significant difference was observed between the three mouse groups, a slightly higher percentage of the GLV-1h376-treated mice-derived T cells were expressing CD25 and producing IFN-ɣ after ex vivo activation, probably due to the CTLA4 blockade by the virus-encoded CTLA4 scAb in the GLV-1h376-treated mice. Also, slightly higher levels of IL-2 were detected in the culture supernatant of those splenocytes compared to control samples. In contrast, T cells from all three mouse groups were not able be activated by A549 tumor cells ex vivo.
Our model has the specific advantage that tumors develop under the skin of the humanized mice, which allows accurate monitoring of the tumor growth and evaluation of the oncolytic virotherapy. Therefore it is important to choose the right approaches for its further improvement.
MicroRNAs sind kurze, nicht-kodierende Ribonukleinsäuren, die eine wichtige Rolle bei der Genregulation spielen. Sie sind an vielen physiologischen Prozessen beteiligt und werden als vielversprechende Kandidaten für eine neue Generation von Biomarkern gehandelt. Die Quantifizierung von miRNAs aus Blut oder anderen Körperflüssigkeiten verspricht eine frühe Diagnose verschiedener Krankheitsbilder. Dazu zählen neben zahlreichen Krebsformen unter anderem auch Autoimmun- oder Herz-Kreislauferkrankungen. Um diese Biomarker schnell, sensitiv und spezifisch detektieren zu können, werden geeignete Detektionssysteme benötigt. Dabei liegt ein besonderer Fokus auf der Entwicklung von Point-of-Care-Systemen, die eine automatisierte Durchführung mit einfacher Handhabung verlangen.
Mikrochips können als leistungsfähige technische Hilfsmittel für eine robuste und miniaturisierte Signalerfassung an biochemischen Grenzflächen dienen. Auf der Grundlage eines CMOS-Chips mit einem Sensorarray aus interdigitalen Gold-Elektroden sollte in dieser Arbeit eine quantitative und multiplexfähige miRNA-Detektionsmethode mit elektrochemischer Signaltransduktion entworfen und untersucht werden. Weitere wichtige Zielfaktoren waren eine einfache und schnelle Durchführbarkeit, eine hohe Spezifität und eine gute Sensitivität bei gleichzeitigem Verzicht auf Amplifikation und Vormarkierung des Ausgangsmaterials.
Es wurden verschiedene Methoden entworfen, überprüft, untersucht, optimiert und weiterentwickelt. Das beste Ergebnis wurde letztlich mit einem als Sandwich-Ligations-Methode bezeichneten Verfahren erzielt. Dabei wird zunächst ein aus zwei doppelsträngigen Assay-Komponenten und der Ziel-miRNA bestehender dreiteiliger Hybridisierungskomplex gebildet, der eine beidseitige spezifische Ligation der miRNA mit einem auf der Sensoroberfläche immobilisierten Fängerstrang und einem enzymmarkierten Reporterstrang vermittelt. Durch einen anschließenden Waschschritt werden alle überschüssigen Markierungen vom Detektionsbereich entfernt, so dass bei der Detektion nur Reporterenzyme ausgelesen werden, die über die Ziel-miRNA kovalent mit dem immobilisierten Strang verbunden sind. Dieses Signal ist daher proportional zur Ausgangskonzentration der gesuchten miRNA.
Die Methode wurde mit Hilfe von synthetischen miRNAs etabliert und optimiert. Sie erreichte eine analytische Sensitivität von unter 1 pM Ziel-Nukleinsäure bei einer Gesamt-Versuchsdauer von nur 30 Minuten. Konzentrationsreihen demonstrierten einen linearen dynamischen Messbereich zwischen 1 pM und 1 nM, der eine verlässliche Quantifizierung der detektierten miRNAs in diesem Bereich ermöglicht. Die sehr gute Spezfifität des Assays zeigte sich bei der Untersuchung des Einflusses verschiedener IsomiRs auf das Messergebnis sowie im Rahmen von Experimenten mit miRNAs der let-7-Familie. Dabei konnten Ziel-Nukleinsäuren mit Einzelbasenunterschieden klar differenziert werden. Die Multiplexfähigkeit der vorgestellten Methode wurde durch die gleichzeitige Quantifizierung von bis zu acht miRNAs auf einem CMOS-Chip demonstriert, zuzüglich Kontrollen.
Die Validierung der Detektionsmethode erfolgte mit Gesamt-RNA-Extrakten aus Vollblutproben. Dazu wurde ein kardiales Panel aus acht miRNAs, die auf Basis von Studien zu zirkulierenden miRNAs bei Herzerkrankungen ausgewählt wurden, festgelegt. Mit Hilfe der entsprechenden optimierten Detektionskomponenten wurden aus Spenderblut gewonnene endogene miRNAs analysiert. Dabei zeigte sich für fünf der acht Kandidaten sowohl eine solide Korrelation zwischen eingesetzter Gesamt-RNA-Menge und Messsignal, als auch eine gute Reproduzierbarkeit der Ergebnisse.
Die Konzentrationen der übrigen drei miRNAs lagen nah am unteren Detektionslimit und lieferten daher keine verlässlichen Daten. Mit Hilfe sogenannter branched DNA zur Signalamplifikation könnte bei Bedarf die Sensitivität des Assays noch verbessert werden, was durch weitere Experimente dieser Arbeit demonstriert wurde.
Ein Vergleichsexperiment zwischen der Sandwich-Ligations-Methode und qRT-PCR zeigte nur eine schwache Korrelation der Messergebnisse. Dies ist jedoch konsistent mit anderen Studien zur Vergleichbarkeit unterschiedlicher Detektionsmethoden.
Abschließend wurden die miRNAs des kardialen Panels in Gesamt-RNA-Extrakten aus Vollblut von Herzinfarktpatienten und Kontrollen mit der entwickelten Detektionsmethode analysiert und die Ergebnisse verglichen. Dabei konnten Abweichungen in den Konzentrationen von miR-15a und miR-425 aufgedeckt werden. Eine entsprechende diagnostische Untersuchung mit der hier vorgelegten und validierten Detektionsmethode könnte eine Alternative oder Ergänzung zu aktuell eingesetzten proteinbasierten Tests bieten.
Pancreatic cancer (PC) remains one of the most challenging solid tumors to treat with a high unmet medical need as patients poorly respond to standard-of-care-therapies. Prominent desmoplastic reaction involving cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and the immune cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME) and their cross-talk play a significant role in tumor immune escape and progression. To identify the key cellular mechanisms induce an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, we established 3D co-culture model with pancreatic cancer cells, CAFs, monocyte as well as T cells.
Using this model, we analysed the influence of tumor cells and fibroblasts on monocytes and their immune suppressive phenotype. Phenotypic characterization of the monocytes after 3D co-culture with tumor/fibroblast spheroids was performed by analysing the expression of defined cell surface markers and soluble factors. Functionality of these monocytes and their ability to influence T cell phenotype and proliferation was investigated.
3D co-culture of monocytes with pancreatic cancer cells and fibroblasts induced the production of immunosuppressive cytokines which are known to promote polarization of M2 like macrophages and myeloid derived suppressive cells (MDSCs). These co-culture spheroid polarized monocyte derived macrophages (MDMs) were poorly differentiated and had an M2 phenotype. The immunosuppressive function of these co-culture spheroids polarized MDMs was demonstrated by their ability to inhibit autologous CD4+ and CD8+ T cell activation and proliferation in vitro, which we could partially reverse by 3D co-culture spheroid treatment with therapeutic molecules that are able to re-activate spheroid polarized MDMs or block immune suppressive factors such as Arginase-I.
In conclusion, we generated a physiologically relevant 3D co-culture model, which can be used as a promising tool to study complex cell-cell interactions between different cell types within the tumor microenvironment and to support drug screening and development. In future, research focused on better understanding of resistance mechanisms to existing cancer immunotherapies will help to develop new therapeutic strategies in order to combat cancer.
Social immunity is a key factor for honeybee health, including behavioral defense strategies such as the collective use of antimicrobial plant resins (propolis). While laboratory data repeatedly show significant propolis effects, field data are scarce, especially at the colony level. Here, we investigated whether propolis, as naturally deposited in the nests, can protect honeybees against ectoparasitic mites Varroa destructor and associated viruses, which are currently considered the most serious biological threat to European honeybee subspecies, Apis mellifera, globally. Propolis intake of 10 field colonies was manipulated by either reducing or adding freshly collected propolis. Mite infestations, titers of deformed wing virus (DWV) and sacbrood virus (SBV), resin intake, as well as colony strength were recorded monthly from July to September 2013. We additionally examined the effect of raw propolis volatiles on mite survival in laboratory assays. Our results showed no significant effects of adding or removing propolis on mite survival and infestation levels. However, in relation to V. destructor, DWV titers increased significantly less in colonies with added propolis than in propolis-removed colonies, whereas SBV titers were similar. Colonies with added propolis were also significantly stronger than propolis-removed colonies. These findings indicate that propolis may interfere with the dynamics of V. destructor-transmitted viruses, thereby further emphasizing the importance of propolis for honeybee health.
Background
Artificial rearing of honey bee larvae is an established method which enables to fully standardize the rearing environment and to manipulate the supplied diet to the brood. However, there are no studies which compare learning performance or neuroanatomic differences of artificially-reared (in-lab) bees in comparison with their in-hive reared counterparts.
Methods
Here we tested how different quantities of food during larval development affect body size, brain morphology and learning ability of adult honey bees. We used in-lab rearing to be able to manipulate the total quantity of food consumed during larval development. After hatching, a subset of the bees was taken for which we made 3D reconstructions of the brains using confocal laser-scanning microscopy. Learning ability and memory formation of the remaining bees was tested in a differential olfactory conditioning experiment. Finally, we evaluated how bees reared with different quantities of artificial diet compared to in-hive reared bees.
Results
Thorax and head size of in-lab reared honey bees, when fed the standard diet of 160 µl or less, were slightly smaller than hive bees. The brain structure analyses showed that artificially reared bees had smaller mushroom body (MB) lateral calyces than their in-hive counterparts, independently of the quantity of food they received. However, they showed the same total brain size and the same associative learning ability as in-hive reared bees. In terms of mid-term memory, but not early long-term memory, they performed even better than the in-hive control.
Discussion
We have demonstrated that bees that are reared artificially (according to the Aupinel protocol) and kept in lab-conditions perform the same or even better than their in-hive sisters in an olfactory conditioning experiment even though their lateral calyces were consistently smaller at emergence. The applied combination of experimental manipulation during the larval phase plus subsequent behavioral and neuro-anatomic analyses is a powerful tool for basic and applied honey bee research.
Immature or semi-mature dendritic cells (DCs) represent tolerogenic maturation stages that can convert naive T cells into Foxp3\(^{+}\) induced regulatory T cells (iTreg). Here we found that murine bone marrow-derived DCs (BM-DCs) treated with cholera toxin (CT) matured by up-regulating MHC-II and costimulatory molecules using either high or low doses of CT (CT\(^{hi}\), CT\(^{lo}\)) or with cAMP, a known mediator CT signals. However, all three conditions also induced mRNA of both isoforms of the tolerogenic molecule cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 2 (CTLA-2α and CTLA-2β). Only DCs matured under CT\(^{hi}\) conditions secreted IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-23 leading to the instruction of Th17 cell polarization. In contrast, CT\(^{lo}\)- or cAMP-DCs resembled semi-mature DCs and enhanced TGF-β-dependent Foxp3\(^{+}\) iTreg conversion. iTreg conversion could be reduced using siRNA blocking of CTLA-2 and reversely, addition of recombinant CTLA-2α increased iTreg conversion in vitro. Injection of CT\(^{lo}\)- or cAMP-DCs exerted MOG peptide-specific protective effects in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) by inducing Foxp3\(^{+}\) Tregs and reducing Th17 responses. Together, we identified CTLA-2 production by DCs as a novel tolerogenic mediator of TGF-β-mediated iTreg induction in vitro and in vivo. The CT-induced and cAMP-mediated up-regulation of CTLA-2 also may point to a novel immune evasion mechanism of Vibrio cholerae.
Adhesion-type G protein-coupled receptors (aGPCRs), a large molecule family with over 30 members in humans, operate in organ development, brain function and govern immunological responses. Correspondingly, this receptor family is linked to a multitude of diverse human diseases. aGPCRs have been suggested to possess mechanosensory properties, though their mechanism of action is fully unknown. Here we show that the Drosophila aGPCR Latrophilin/dCIRL acts in mechanosensory neurons by modulating ionotropic receptor currents, the initiating step of cellular mechanosensation. This process depends on the length of the extended ectodomain and the tethered agonist of the receptor, but not on its autoproteolysis, a characteristic biochemical feature of the aGPCR family. Intracellularly, dCIRL quenches cAMP levels upon mechanical activation thereby specifically increasing the mechanosensitivity of neurons. These results provide direct evidence that the aGPCR dCIRL acts as a molecular sensor and signal transducer that detects and converts mechanical stimuli into a metabotropic response.
MicroRNAs are well-known strong RNA regulators modulating whole functional units in complex signaling networks. Regarding clinical application, they have potential as biomarkers for prognosis, diagnosis, and therapy. In this review, we focus on two microRNAs centrally involved in lung cancer progression. MicroRNA-21 promotes and microRNA-34 inhibits cancer progression. We elucidate here involved pathways and imbed these antagonistic microRNAs in a network of interactions, stressing their cancer microRNA biology, followed by experimental and bioinformatics analysis of such microRNAs and their targets. This background is then illuminated from a clinical perspective on microRNA-21 and microRNA-34 as general examples for the complex microRNA biology in lung cancer and its diagnostic value. Moreover, we discuss the immense potential that microRNAs such as microRNA-21 and microRNA-34 imply by their broad regulatory effects. These should be explored for novel therapeutic strategies in the clinic.
High invasiveness and resistance to chemo- and radiotherapy of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) make it the most lethal brain tumor. Therefore, new treatment strategies for preventing migration and invasion of GBM cells are needed. Using two different migration assays, Western blotting, conventional and super-resolution (dSTORM) fluorescence microscopy we examine the effects of the dual PI3K/mTOR-inhibitor PI-103 alone and in combination with the Hsp90 inhibitor NVP-AUY922 and/or irradiation on the migration, expression of marker proteins, focal adhesions and F-actin cytoskeleton in two GBM cell lines (DK-MG and SNB19) markedly differing in their invasive capacity. Both lines were found to be strikingly different in morphology and migration behavior. The less invasive DK-MG cells maintained a polarized morphology and migrated in a directionally persistent manner, whereas the highly invasive SNB19 cells showed a multipolar morphology and migrated randomly. Interestingly, a single dose of 2 Gy accelerated wound closure in both cell lines without affecting their migration measured by single-cell tracking. PI-103 inhibited migration of DK-MG (p53 wt, PTEN wt) but not of SNB19 (p53 mut, PTEN mut) cells probably due to aberrant reactivation of the PI3K pathway in SNB19 cells treated with PI-103. In contrast, NVP-AUY922 exerted strong anti-migratory effects in both cell lines. Inhibition of cell migration was associated with massive morphological changes and reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton. Our results showed a cell line-specific response to PI3K/mTOR inhibition in terms of GBM cell motility. We conclude that anti-migratory agents warrant further preclinical investigation as potential therapeutics for treatment of GBM.
The regulation of replication is essential to preserve genome integrity. Mms1 is part of the E3 ubiquitin ligase complex that is linked to replication fork progression. By identifying Mms1 binding sites genome-wide in Saccharomyces cerevisiae we connected Mms1 function to genome integrity and replication fork progression at particular G-rich motifs. This motif can form G-quadruplex (G4) structures in vitro. G4 are stable DNA structures that are known to impede replication fork progression. In the absence of Mms1, genome stability is at risk at these G-rich/G4 regions as demonstrated by gross chromosomal rearrangement assays. Mms1 binds throughout the cell cycle to these G-rich/G4 regions and supports the binding of Pif1 DNA helicase. Based on these data we propose a mechanistic model in which Mms1 binds to specific G-rich/G4 motif located on the lagging strand template for DNA replication and supports Pif1 function, DNA replication and genome integrity.
Cytotoxic T lymphocytes are effector CD8\(^{+}\) T cells that eradicate infected and malignant cells. Here we show that the transcription factor NFATc1 controls the cytotoxicity of mouse cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Activation of Nfatc1\(^{-/-}\) cytotoxic T lymphocytes showed a defective cytoskeleton organization and recruitment of cytosolic organelles to immunological synapses. These cells have reduced cytotoxicity against tumor cells, and mice with NFATc1-deficient T cells are defective in controlling Listeria infection. Transcriptome analysis shows diminished RNA levels of numerous genes in Nfatc1\(^{-/-}\) CD8\(^{+}\) T cells, including Tbx21, Gzmb and genes encoding cytokines and chemokines, and genes controlling glycolysis. Nfatc1\(^{-/-}\), but not Nfatc2\(^{-/-}\) CD8\(^{+}\) T cells have an impaired metabolic switch to glycolysis, which can be restored by IL-2. Genome-wide ChIP-seq shows that NFATc1 binds many genes that control cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity. Together these data indicate that NFATc1 is an important regulator of cytotoxic T lymphocyte effector functions.
OGEE is an Online GEne Essentiality database. To enhance our understanding of the essentiality of genes, in OGEE we collected experimentally tested essential and non-essential genes, as well as associated gene properties known to contribute to gene essentiality. We focus on large-scale experiments, and complement our data with text-mining results. We organized tested genes into data sets according to their sources, and tagged those with variable essentiality statuses across data sets as conditionally essential genes, intending to highlight the complex interplay between gene functions and environments/experimental perturbations. Developments since the last public release include increased number of species and gene essentiality data sets, inclusion of non-coding essential sequences and genes with intermediate essentiality statuses. In addition, we included 16 essentiality data sets from cancer cell lines, corresponding to 9 human cancers; with OGEE, users can easily explore the shared and differentially essential genes within and between cancer types. These genes, especially those derived from cell lines that are similar to tumor samples, could reveal the oncogenic drivers, paralogous gene expression pattern and chromosomal structure of the corresponding cancer types, and can be further screened to identify targets for cancer therapy and/or new drug development. OGEE is freely available at http://ogee.medgenius.info.
A precise and rapid adjustment of fluxes through metabolic pathways is crucial for organisms to prevail in changing environmental conditions. Based on this reasoning, many guiding principles that govern the evolution of metabolic networks and their regulation have been uncovered. To this end, methods from dynamic optimization are ideally suited since they allow to uncover optimality principles behind the regulation of metabolic networks. We used dynamic optimization to investigate the influence of toxic intermediates in connection with the efficiency of enzymes on the regulation of a linear metabolic pathway. Our results predict that transcriptional regulation favors the control of highly efficient enzymes with less toxic upstream intermediates to reduce accumulation of toxic downstream intermediates. We show that the derived optimality principles hold by the analysis of the interplay between intermediate toxicity and pathway regulation in the metabolic pathways of over 5000 sequenced prokaryotes. Moreover, using the lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis in Escherichia coli as an example, we show how knowledge about the relation of regulation, kinetic efficiency and intermediate toxicity can be used to identify drug targets, which control endogenous toxic metabolites and prevent microbial growth. Beyond prokaryotes, we discuss the potential of our findings for the development of antifungal drugs.