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Brain function relies on accurate information transfer at chemical synapses. At the presynaptic active zone (AZ) a variety of specialized proteins are assembled to complex architectures, which set the basis for speed, precision and plasticity of synaptic transmission. Calcium channels are pivotal for the initiation of excitation-secretion coupling and, correspondingly, capture a central position at the AZ. Combining quantitative functional studies with modeling approaches has provided predictions of channel properties, numbers and even positions on the nanometer scale. However, elucidating the nanoscopic organization of the surrounding protein network requires direct ultrastructural access. Without this information, knowledge of molecular synaptic structure-function relationships remains incomplete. Recently, super-resolution microscopy (SRM) techniques have begun to enter the neurosciences. These approaches combine high spatial resolution with the molecular specificity of fluorescence microscopy. Here, we discuss how SRM can be used to obtain information on the organization of AZ proteins
Herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) is one of the most widespread pathogens among humans. Although the structure of HSV-1 has been extensively investigated, the precise organization of tegument and envelope proteins remains elusive. Here we use super-resolution imaging by direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM) in combination with a model-based analysis of single-molecule localization data, to determine the position of protein layers within virus particles. We resolve different protein layers within individual HSV-1 particles using multi-colour dSTORM imaging and discriminate envelope-anchored glycoproteins from tegument proteins, both in purified virions and in virions present in infected cells. Precise characterization of HSV-1 structure was achieved by particle averaging of purified viruses and model-based analysis of the radial distribution of the tegument proteins VP16, VP1/2 and pUL37, and envelope protein gD. From this data, we propose a model of the protein organization inside the tegument.
Der Kehlkopf ist ein stimmerzeugendes knorpelhaltiges Organ und spielt eine wichtige Rolle in der Atemfunktion und beim aspirationsfreien Schluckakt. Funktionsstörungen des Kehlkopfs wie Stimmbandlähmungen werden durch Schädigungen des Kehlkopfnervs nach operativen Eingriffen und Halsverletzungen hervorgerufen. Des Weiteren führen durch Traumen, Teil- und komplette Resektionen verursachte Substanzdefekte des Kehlkopfs zu Funktionsverlusten. Die hierfür notwendigen und komplexen Rekonstruktionen werden durch das schlechte Regenerationspotential von Knorpelgewebe eingeschränkt und können nur bedingt durch synthetische Ersatzmaterialen oder körpereigenes Ersatzgewebe bewerkstelligt werden. Ist es möglich, mit Hilfe des Tissue Engineerings aus körpereigenen Stammzellen und biokompatiblen Trägermaterialien implantierbares Knorpelersatzgewebe herzustellen, welches zur dauerhaften Wiederherstellung der Kehlkopffunktionen eingesetzt werden kann? Die zusätzliche Markierung von Stammzellen mit superparamagnetischen Eisenoxidnanopartikeln (VSOP) als Zellmarker bietet die Möglichkeit der Detektion und der Verfolgung der Zellen mittels nicht-invasiver Nachweismethoden nach deren Implantation. Ist die Verwendung dieser Nanopartikel ohne negative Folgen für die Stammzellen möglich und sind diese für den Einsatz in der Laryngologie geeignet?
Fettgewebsstammzellen (ASC) wurden aus humanem Liposuktionsmaterial und Kaninchen-Nackenfett isoliert und expandiert. Die Zellen wurden in Hydrogelkombinationen aus Kollagen Typ-I, Agarose, Fibrin und Hyaluronsäure eingebettet und mit den chondrogenen Wachstumsfaktoren TGF-β3, BMP-6 und IGF-I über 14 Tage differenziert. Anschließend wurden diese Zell-Hydrogelkonstrukte bezüglich Morphologie, extrazellulärer Matrixanreicherung und knorpelspezifischer Genexpression histologisch, immunhistochemisch und molekularbiologisch analysiert. In einem weiteren Schritt wurden die Integration der Zell-Hydrogelkonstrukte in natives Knorpelgewebe sowie die Defektdeckung in einem in vitro- und einem in vivo-Knorpeldefektmodell mit vor- und nicht-vordifferenzierten Zell-Hydrogelkonstrukten untersucht. Die Analyse möglicher zyto- und genotoxischer Effekte von VSOP sowie des Einflusses der Markierung von ASC mit VSOP auf die Proliferation, Migration und das Multidifferenzierungspotential erfolgte nach der Markierung der Zellen mit unterschiedlichen VSOP-Konzentrationen. Außerdem wurden VSOP-markierte ASC in Kaninchenstimmlippen injiziert und die Nachweisbarkeit dieser Zellen im Injektionsareal histologisch und mittels Magnetresonanztomographie (MRT) untersucht.
Nach 14-tägiger chondrogener Differenzierung wurde in den Zell-Hydrogelkonstrukten eine knorpelähnliche Morphologie, die Anreicherung knorpelspezifischer Matrixproteine und die Expression chondrogener Markergene nachgewiesen. Die Kombination der chondrogenen Wachstumsfaktoren zeigte keinen verstärkenden Einfluss auf die Chondrogenese von ASC. Hydrogele aus Kollagen Typ I und Hyaluronsäure wiesen die stärkste extrazelluläre Matrixanreicherung auf. Bei den agarosefreien Hydrogelen war eine ausgeprägte Gelschrumpfung auffällig. In den beiden Knorpeldefektmodellen konnte weder eine Integration der Zell-Hydrogelkonstrukte in den Nativknorpel noch eine vollständige Defektdeckung nachgewiesen werden. Nach der Markierung von ASC mit VSOP zeigte sich bei der höchsten Konzentration von 1,5 mM eine genotoxische Wirkung. Zytotoxische Effekte sowie Einflüsse der Markierung auf die Proliferation, Migration und das Multidifferenzierungspotential von ASC waren nicht nachweisbar. VSOP-markierte ASC konnten nach deren Injektion in Kaninchenstimmlippen im Injektionsareal nur vereinzelt mittels MRT und histologisch nachgewiesen werden.
Es ist möglich, mit Hilfe des Tissue Engineerings aus körpereigenen Stammzellen und biokompatiblen Trägermaterialien implantierbares knorpelähnliches Gewebe herzustellen. Dabei begünstigen agarosefreie Trägermaterialien die chondrogene Differenzierung von ASC. Diese könnte durch die jeweilige Erhöhung der Zelldichte und Wachstumsfaktorkonzentrationen sowie die Verlängerung der Induktionszeit verstärkt werden. Eine mögliche klinische Anwendung dieser knorpelähnlichen Gewebe in der Laryngologie ist jedoch durch deren Schrumpfung wie auch mangelnde Integration und Defektdeckung noch weit entfernt. Aufgrund ihrer genotoxischen Wirkung kann eine Verwendung von VSOP als Zellmarker auch unterhalb von 1,5 mM ohne negative Folgen für den Organismus nicht sicher ausgeschlossen werden. Der inhomogene Gewebekontrast im Kehlkopf, die schlechte Auflösung im MRT und die geringe Größe von VSOP erschweren die Nachweisbarkeit und Verfolgung markierter Zellen mittels MRT. Daher sind andere nicht-invasive Nachweismethoden für die Verwendung von VSOP im Kehlkopf zu evaluieren. Der möglichen Anwendung dieser knorpelähnlichen Gewebe und VSOP in der rekonstruktiven Laryngologie muss eine erfolgreiche Optimierung und ausführliche positive Validierung in klinischen Tests vorausgehen.
Abstract
Background
HLA-G is a non-classical MHC class I molecule which exerts strong immunosuppressive effects on various immune cells. Several membrane-bound and soluble isoforms are known. Physiologically, HLA-G is predominantly expressed in the placenta, where it contributes to protecting the semi-allogeneic embryo from rejection by the maternal immune system. However, HLA-G is also often upregulated during tumourigenesis, such as in ovarian cancer. The aim of this thesis is to investigate how soluble HLA-G may contribute to local immunosuppression in ovarian carcinomas, and to characterize HLA-G expression in different ovarian carcinoma subtypes and metastases.
Results
As reported by others, physiological HLA-G expression is restricted to few tissues, such as placenta and testes. Here, HLA-G was also detected in the medulla of the adrenal gland. In contrast, HLA-G expression was frequently detected in tumours of all assessed subtypes of ovarian carcinomas (serous, mucinous, endometrioid and clear cell). Highest expression levels were detected in high-grade serous carcinomas. In primary tumours, expression of HLA-G correlated with expression of classical MHC class I molecules HLA-A, -B and -C. Surprisingly, high levels of HLA-G were also detected on dendritic cells in local lymph nodes. As no expression of HLA-G was inducible in monocytes or dendritic cells from healthy donors in response to IL-10 or IL-4, we speculated that tumour-derived soluble HLA-G might be transferred to dendritic cells via the lymphatic system. Accordingly, high levels of tumour-derived soluble HLA-G were detected in ovarian cancer ascites samples. In vitro, dendritic cells expanded in the presence of IL-4, IL-10 and GM-CSF (DC-10) were particularly prone to binding high amounts of soluble HLA-G via ILT receptors. Furthermore, HLA-G loaded DC-10 cells inhibited the proliferation of CD8 effector cells and induced regulatory T cells, even when the DC-10 cells had been fixed with paraformaldehyde.
Conclusion
The immunosuppressive molecule HLA-G is overexpressed in high-grade serous ovarian carcinomas, which account for the majority of ovarian cancers. In particular tumours with a high mutational burden and intact expression of classical, immunogenic MHC class Ia molecules may use HLA-G to escape from immunosurveillance. Additionally, tumour-derived soluble HLA-G may inhibit adaptive immune responses by binding to dendritic cells in local lymph nodes. Dendritic cells usually play a decisive role in the initiation of adaptive anti-tumour immune responses by presenting tumour antigens to cytotoxic T cells. In contrast, dendritic cells loaded with soluble HLA-G inhibit the proliferation of effector T cells and promote the induction of regulatory T cells. Thus, soluble HLA-G that is transferred to dendritic cells via lymphatic vessels may enable ovarian carcinomas to remotely suppress anti-tumour immune responses in local lymph nodes. This novel immune-escape mechanism may also exist in other solid tumours that express HLA-G.
Background
Myc proteins are essential regulators of animal growth during normal development, and their deregulation is one of the main driving factors of human malignancies. They function as transcription factors that (in vertebrates) control many growth- and proliferation-associated genes, and in some contexts contribute to global gene regulation.
Results
We combine chromatin immunoprecipitation-sequencing (ChIPseq) and RNAseq approaches in Drosophila tissue culture cells to identify a core set of less than 500 Myc target genes, whose salient function resides in the control of ribosome biogenesis. Among these genes we find the non-coding snoRNA genes as a large novel class of Myc targets. All assayed snoRNAs are affected by Myc, and many of them are subject to direct transcriptional activation by Myc, both in Drosophila and in vertebrates. The loss of snoRNAs impairs growth during normal development, whereas their overexpression increases tumor mass in a model for neuronal tumors.
Conclusions
This work shows that Myc acts as a master regulator of snoRNP biogenesis. In addition, in combination with recent observations of snoRNA involvement in human cancer, it raises the possibility that Myc’s transforming effects are partially mediated by this class of non-coding transcripts.
The flagellate Trypanosoma brucei, which causes the sleeping sickness when infecting a mammalian host, goes through an intricate life cycle. It has a rather complex propulsion mechanism and swims in diverse microenvironments. These continuously exert selective pressure, to which the trypanosome adjusts with its architecture and behavior. As a result, the trypanosome assumes a diversity of complex morphotypes during its life cycle. However, although cell biology has detailed form and function of most of them, experimental data on the dynamic behavior and development of most morphotypes is lacking. Here we show that simulation science can predict intermediate cell designs by conducting specific and controlled modifications of an accurate, nature-inspired cell model, which we developed using information from live cell analyses. The cell models account for several important characteristics of the real trypanosomal morphotypes, such as the geometry and elastic properties of the cell body, and their swimming mechanism using an eukaryotic flagellum. We introduce an elastic network model for the cell body, including bending rigidity and simulate swimming in a fluid environment, using the mesoscale simulation technique called multi-particle collision dynamics. The in silico trypanosome of the bloodstream form displays the characteristic in vivo rotational and translational motility pattern that is crucial for survival and virulence in the vertebrate host. Moreover, our model accurately simulates the trypanosome's tumbling and backward motion. We show that the distinctive course of the attached flagellum around the cell body is one important aspect to produce the observed swimming behavior in a viscous fluid, and also required to reach the maximal swimming velocity. Changing details of the flagellar attachment generates less efficient swimmers. We also simulate different morphotypes that occur during the parasite's development in the tsetse fly, and predict a flagellar course we have not been able to measure in experiments so far.
Sigma factor SigB is crucial to mediate Staphylococcus aureus adaptation during chronic infections
(2015)
Staphylococcus aureus is a major human pathogen that causes a range of infections from acute invasive to chronic and difficult-to-treat. Infection strategies associated with persisting S. aureus infections are bacterial host cell invasion and the bacterial ability to dynamically change phenotypes from the aggressive wild-type to small colony variants (SCVs), which are adapted for intracellular long-term persistence. The underlying mechanisms of the bacterial switching and adaptation mechanisms appear to be very dynamic, but are largely unknown. Here, we analyzed the role and the crosstalk of the global S. aureus regulators agr, sarA and SigB by generating single, double and triple mutants, and testing them with proteome analysis and in different in vitro and in vivo infection models. We were able to demonstrate that SigB is the crucial factor for adaptation in chronic infections. During acute infection, the bacteria require the simultaneous action of the agr and sarA loci to defend against invading immune cells by causing inflammation and cytotoxicity and to escape from phagosomes in their host cells that enable them to settle an infection at high bacterial density. To persist intracellularly the bacteria subsequently need to silence agr and sarA. Indeed agr and sarA deletion mutants expressed a much lower number of virulence factors and could persist at high numbers intracellularly. SigB plays a crucial function to promote bacterial intracellular persistence. In fact, \(\Delta\)sigB-mutants did not generate SCVs and were completely cleared by the host cells within a few days. In this study we identified SigB as an essential factor that enables the bacteria to switch from the highly aggressive phenotype that settles an acute infection to a silent SCV-phenotype that allows for long-term intracellular persistence. Consequently, the SigB-operon represents a possible target to develop preventive and therapeutic strategies against chronic and therapy-refractory infections.
Deregulated MYC expression contributes to cellular transformation as well as progression and
maintenance of human tumours. Interestingly, in the absence of additional genetic alterations,
potentially oncogenic levels of MYC sensitise cells to a variety of apoptotic stimuli. Hence, MYC-induced
apoptosis has long been recognised as a major barrier against cancer development.
However, it is largely unknown how cells discriminate physiological from supraphysiological levels
of MYC in order to execute an appropriate biological response.
The experiments described in this thesis demonstrate that induction of apoptosis in mammary
epithelial cells depends on the repressive actions of MYC/MIZ1 complexes. Analysis of gene
expression profiles and ChIP-sequencing experiments reveals that high levels of MYC are required
to invade low-affinity binding sites and repress target genes of the serum response factor SRF.
These genes are involved in cytoskeletal dynamics as well as cell adhesion processes and are likely
needed to transmit survival signals to the AKT kinase. Restoration of SRF activity rescues MIZ1-
dependent gene repression and increases AKT phosphorylation and downstream function.
Collectively, these results indicate that association with MIZ1 leads to an expansion of MYC’s
transcriptional response that allows sensing of oncogenic levels, which points towards a tumour-suppressive
role for the MYC/MIZ1 complex in epithelial cells.
Background
Defence mechanisms of organisms are shaped by their lifestyle, environment and pathogen pressure. Carpenter ants are social insects which live in huge colonies comprising genetically closely related individuals in high densities within nests. This lifestyle potentially facilitates the rapid spread of pathogens between individuals. In concert with their innate immune system, social insects may apply external immune defences to manipulate the microbial community among individuals and within nests. Additionally, carpenter ants carry a mutualistic intracellular and obligate endosymbiotic bacterium, possibly maintained and regulated by the innate immune system. Thus, different selective forces could shape internal immune defences of Camponotus floridanus.
Results
The immune gene repertoire of C. floridanus was investigated by re-evaluating its genome sequence combined with a full transcriptome analysis of immune challenged and control animals using Illumina sequencing. The genome was re-annotated by mapping transcriptome reads and masking repeats. A total of 978 protein sequences were characterised further by annotating functional domains, leading to a change in their original annotation regarding function and domain composition in about 8 % of all proteins. Based on homology analysis with key components of major immune pathways of insects, the C. floridanus immune-related genes were compared to those of Drosophila melanogaster, Apis mellifera, and other hymenoptera. This analysis revealed that overall the immune system of carpenter ants comprises many components found in these insects. In addition, several C. floridanus specific genes of yet unknown functions but which are strongly induced after immune challenge were discovered. In contrast to solitary insects like Drosophila or the hymenopteran Nasonia vitripennis, the number of genes encoding pattern recognition receptors specific for bacterial peptidoglycan (PGN) and a variety of known antimicrobial peptide (AMP) genes is lower in C. floridanus. The comparative analysis of gene expression post immune-challenge in different developmental stages of C. floridanus suggests a stronger induction of immune gene expression in larvae in comparison to adults.
Conclusions
The comparison of the immune system of C. floridanus with that of other insects revealed the presence of a broad immune repertoire. However, the relatively low number of PGN recognition proteins and AMPs, the identification of Camponotus specific putative immune genes, and stage specific differences in immune gene regulation reflects Camponotus specific evolution including adaptations to its lifestyle.
The human-pathogenic bacterium Salmonella enterica adjusts and adapts to different environments while attempting colonization. In the course of infection nutrient availabilities change drastically. New techniques, "-omics" data and subsequent integration by systems biology improve our understanding of these changes. We review changes in metabolism focusing on amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism. Furthermore, the adaptation process is associated with the activation of genes of the Salmonella pathogenicity islands (SPIs). Anti-infective strategies have to take these insights into account and include metabolic and other strategies. Salmonella infections will remain a challenge for infection biology.
Peroxiredoxin 6 (PRDX6) is a bifunctional enzyme comprising a peroxidase and a Ca2+-independent phospholipase (iPLA2) activity. This renders the enzyme capable of detoxifying reactive oxygen species (ROS) and of catalyzing the liberation of arachidonic acid (AA) from cellular membranes. Released AA can be further metabolized to bioactive lipids including eicosanoids, which are involved in inflammation, cell growth, differentiation, invasion and proliferation. Human melanoma cells are often characterized by imbalances in both ROS and lipid levels, which can be generated by oncogenic signaling, altered metabolism or UV irradiation.
In previous studies, a comparative proteome analysis of the Xiphophorus fish melanoma model revealed a strong upregulation of Prdx6 in benign and malignant lesions compared to healthy skin. As the Xiphophorus melanoma model displays in many respects molecular characteristics that are similar to human melanoma, I investigated the functional role of PRDX6 in human melanoma cells.
The first part of the study deals with the regulation of PRDX6 in melanocytes and human melanoma cells. I could demonstrate that the protein level of PRDX6 was strongly enhanced by the induction of the EGFR orthologue Xmrk from the Xiphophorus fish as well as the human EGFR. The upregulation of PRDX6 was further shown to be mediated in a PI3K-dependent and ROS-independent manner.
The main part of the thesis comprises the investigation of the functional role of PRDX6 in human melanoma cells as well as the analysis of the underlying mechanism. I could show that knockdown of PRDX6 enhanced the oxidative stress response and led to decreased proliferation of melanoma cells. This cell growth effect was mainly mediated by the iPLA2 activity of PRDX6. Under conditions of strongly enhanced oxidative stress, the peroxidase activity became also important for cellular proliferation. Furthermore, the anti-proliferative effect in cells with lowered PRDX6 levels was the result of reduced cellular AA content and the decrease in the activation of SRC family proteins. Similarly, supplementation with AA led to regeneration of SRC family kinase activity and to an improvement in the reduced proliferation after knockdown of PRDX6. Since AA can be further processed into the prostaglandin PGE2, which has a pro-tumorigenic function in some cancer types, I further examined whether this eicosanoid is involved in the proliferative function of PRDX6. In contrast to AA, PGE2 was not consistently required for melanoma proliferation.
In summary, I could demonstrate that PRDX6 plays a major role in AA-dependent lipid signaling in melanoma cells and thereby regulates proliferation. Interestingly, the proliferation relevant iPLA2 activity can be pharmacologically targeted, and melanoma cell growth was clearly blocked by the inhibitor BEL. Thus, I could identify the phospholipase activity of PRDX6 as a new therapeutically interesting target for melanoma treatment.
The oncogenic MYC protein is a transcriptional regulator of multiple cellular processes and is aberrantly activated in a wide range of human cancers. MYC is an unstable protein rapidly degraded by the ubiquitin-proteasome system. Ubiquitination can both positively and negatively affect MYC function, but its direct contribution to MYC-mediated transactivation remained unresolved.
To investigate how ubiquitination regulates MYC activity, a non-ubiquitinatable MYC mutant was characterized, in which all lysines are replaced by arginines (K-less MYC). The absence of ubiquitin-acceptor sites in K-less MYC resulted in a more stable protein, but did not affect cellular localization, chromatin-association or the ability to interact with known MYC interaction partners.
Unlike the wild type protein, K-less MYC was unable to promote proliferation in immortalized mammary epithelial cells. RNA- and ChIP-Sequencing analyses revealed that, although K-less MYC was present at MYC-regulated promoters, it was a weaker transcriptional regulator. The use of K-less MYC, a proteasomal inhibitor and reconstitution of individual lysine residues showed that proteasomal turnover of MYC is required for MYC target gene induction. ChIP-Sequencing of RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) revealed that MYC ubiquitination is dispensable for RNAPII recruitment and transcriptional initiation but is specifically required to promote transcriptional elongation. Turnover of MYC is required to stimulate histone acetylation at MYC-regulated promoters, which depends on a highly conserved region in MYC (MYC box II), thereby enabling the recruitment of BRD4 and P-TEFb and the release of elongating RNAPII from target promoters. Inhibition of MYC turnover enabled the identification of an intermediate in MYC-mediated transactivation, the association of MYC with the PAF complex, a positive elongation factor, suggesting that MYC acts as an assembly factor transferring elongation factors onto RNAPII. The interaction between MYC and the PAF complex occurs via a second highly conserved region in MYC’s amino terminus, MYC box I.
Collectively, the data of this work show that turnover of MYC coordinates histone acetylation with recruitment and transfer of elongation factors on RNAPII involving the cooperation of MYC box I and MYC box II.
Studies investigating the correlates of immune protection against Yersinia infection have established that both humoral and cell mediated immune responses are required for the comprehensive protection. In our previous study, we established that the bivalent fusion protein (rVE) comprising immunologically active regions of Y pestis LcrV (100-270 aa) and YopE (50-213 aa) proteins conferred complete passive and active protection against lethal Y enterocolitica 8081 challenge. In the present study, cohort of BALB/c mice immunized with rVE or its component proteins rV, rE were assessed for cell mediated immune responses and memory immune protection against Y enterocolitica 8081 rVE immunization resulted in extensive proliferation of both CD4 and CD8 T cell subsets; significantly high antibody titer with balanced IgG1: IgG2a/IgG2b isotypes (1:1 ratio) and up regulation of both Th1 (INF-\(\alpha\), IFN-\(\gamma\), IL 2, and IL 12) and Th2 (IL 4) cytokines. On the other hand, rV immunization resulted in Th2 biased IgG response (11:1 ratio) and proliferation of CD4+ T-cell; rE group of mice exhibited considerably lower serum antibody titer with predominant Th1 response (1:3 ratio) and CD8+ T-cell proliferation. Comprehensive protection with superior survival (100%) was observed among rVE immunized mice when compared to the significantly lower survival rates among rE (37.5%) and rV (25%) groups when IP challenged with Y enterocolitica 8081 after 120 days of immunization. Findings in this and our earlier studies define the bivalent fusion protein rVE as a potent candidate vaccine molecule with the capability to concurrently stimulate humoral and cell mediated immune responses and a proof of concept for developing efficient subunit vaccines against Gram negative facultative intracellular bacterial pathogens.
Eine wichtige Standardtherapie in der modernen Behandlung von Krebserkrankungen ist die Strahlentherapie, in welcher Tumorzellen mittels ionisierender Strahlung geschädigt und abgetötet werden. Dabei soll die Schädigung des umgebenden Normalgewebes möglichst gering gehalten und trotzdem eine maximale Schädigung des Tumorgewebes erreicht werden. Deshalb sind neue Strategien zur Steigerung der Radiosensitivität des Tumorgewebes sehr wichtig, die es erlauben, bei gleicher Dosis eine verstärkte Strahlenantwort im Tumorgewebe zu erreichen. Hier kommen zunehmend sog. Radiosensibilisatoren zum Einsatz, die unter anderem onkogene Signalwege in den Tumorzellen inhibieren. Der PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signalweg stellt hierbei einen wichtigen Ansatzpunkt dar, da er in vielen Tumorentitäten dereguliert vorliegt und diese Signalkaskade bekanntermaßen einen Einfluss auf die zelluläre Strahlensensitivität hat. Obwohl es für diesen Signalweg schon eine Reihe von Inhibitoren gibt, für die bereits neben einer anti-proliferativen Wirkung auch ein radiosensibilisierender Effekt nachgewiesen wurde (z.B. Wortmannin und Rapamycin), machten eine geringe Spezifität, starke Nebenwirkungen und negative Rückkopplungsmechanismen im Signalweg, die die Wirkung des Inhibitors kompensieren, die Entwicklung neuer Inhibitoren notwendig. Das Imidazoquinolinderivat NVP-BEZ235 inhibiert den PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signalweg an mehreren Stellen gleichzeitig, indem es kompetitiv zu ATP das katalytische Zentrum von PI3K und mTOR blockiert. Für diesen kleinmolekularen, dualen Inhibitor gibt es bereits erste vielversprechende Forschungsergebnisse hinsichtlich einer radiosensibilisierenden Wirkung, allerdings sind die zugrunde liegenden molekularbiologischen Mechanismen noch nicht vollständig geklärt. Deshalb war das Ziel der vorliegenden Dissertation, in drei Teilprojekten mehrere Aspekte der NVP-BEZ235-induzierten Radiosensibilisierung aufzuklären: a) Einfluss des Behandlungsschemas für NVP-BEZ235 in vier Glioblastomzelllinien mit unterschiedlichem PTEN und TP53 Mutationsstatus, b) Einfluss der Sauerstoffversorgung (Hypoxie, Normoxie, reoxygeniert nach Bestrahlung) auf die strahlensensibilisierende Wirkung von NVP-BEZ235 in zwei Mammakarzinomzelllinien, c) gleichzeitige Inhibierung des MAPK Signalwegs durch AZD6244 und der PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signalkaskade durch NVP-BEZ235 in zwei Zelllinien mit unter-schiedlichem Mutationsstatus aus verschiedenen Tumorentitäten, um synergistische Effekte zu untersuchen. Um diese Fragestellungen zu beantworten, wurde im Rahmen - 142 -
der Dissertation eine Auswahl an humanen Tumorzelllinien mit unterschiedlich deregulierten Signalwegen bearbeitet. Dabei wurde die Expression von Schlüsselproteinen der MAPK/Erk und der PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signalwege analysiert und mit zellbiologischen Daten verschiedener phänotypischer Endpunkte nach Inhibitor Behandlung und Bestrahlung integriert (Proliferationsrate, klonogenes Überleben, Zellzyklusaberrationen, DNS-Schäden und -Reparatur, Zelltod und Autophagie).
Im Teilprojekt zum Behandlungsschema der NVP-BEZ235 Inhibierung und Bestrahlung konnte in vier Glioblastomzelllinien mit Behandlungsschema I (NVP-BEZ235 Behandlung 24 Stunden vor Bestrahlung) kein radiosensibilisierender Effekt hinsichtlich klonogenem Überleben nachgewiesen werden, wohingegen Behandlungsschema II (NVP-BEZ235 Behandlung 1 h vor und im Anschluss an die Bestrahlung) unabhängig vom Mutationsstatus in allen vier Zelllinien eine starke Radiosensibilisierung bewirkte. Auf molekularer Ebene war zwischen beiden Behandlungsschemata für das antiapoptotische Protein Akt ein großer Unterschied zu beobachten, welches bei Behandlung nach Schema I zum Zeitpunkt der Bestrahlung überaktiviert, nach Behandlung mit Schema II hingegen inhibiert war. Weiterhin resultierte Behandlungsschema I in einem erhöhten Anteil der Zellen in der radioresistenteren G1-Phase des Zellzyklus zum Zeit-punkt der Bestrahlung. Behandlungsschema II führte hingegen nach Bestrahlung zu einer verminderten Expression des Reparaturproteins Rad51 und damit zu verminderter DNS-Schadensreparatur und schließlich zu einem stabilen Arrest in der G2/M-Phase des Zellzyklus sowie zu verstärkter Apoptose (erhöhte Spaltung von PARP, erhöhter Anteil hypodiploider Zellen). Somit zeigen diese Ergebnisse, dass unabhängig vom PTEN und TP53 Mutationsstatus eine Radiosensibilisierung nur durch das Behandlungsschema II erreicht werden konnte. Ferner deuten die Ergebnisse der Proteinexpression darauf hin, dass durch NVP-BEZ235 ein negativer Rückkopplungsmechanismus ausgelöst wird, wodurch die PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signalkaskade 24h nach Zugabe des Inhibitors aktiviert und synergistische Effekte mit ionisierender Bestrahlung aufgehoben wurden.
Im Teilprojekt zur Abhängigkeit der NVP-BEZ235 Inhibition vom Sauerstoffgehalt wurden in den beiden Brustkrebszelllinien MCF-7 (ER-positiv) und TN MDA-MB-231 (TP53 mutiert) normoxische, hypoxische und nach Bestrahlung reoxygenierte Kulturbedingungen im Hinblick auf die Koloniebildungsfähigkeit nach NVP-BEZ235 Behandlung und Bestrahlung untersucht. Die beobachtete Radiosensibilisierung war unter allen getesteten Bedingungen auf gleichem Niveau. In beiden Zelllinien bewirkte NVP-BEZ235 eine Inhibition des antiapoptotischen HIF-1α Proteins, eine stabile Inaktivierung des PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signalweges und eine Aktivierung der Autophagie. Nach Bestrahlung waren zudem erhöhte residuale DNS-Schäden und ein stabiler Arrest in der G2/M-Phase des Zellzyklus unter allen Oxygenierungsbedingungen in beiden Zelllinien zu beobachten. Eine Apoptose Induktion (Spaltung von PARP, hypodiploide Zellen) trat nur in der TP53 wildtypischen MCF-7 Zelllinie nach NVP-BEZ235 Behandlung auf. Somit konnte in beiden Zelllinien in allen pathophysiologisch relevanten Oxygenierungszuständen eine sauerstoffunabhängige Radiosensibilisierung durch NVP-BEZ235 gezeigt werden.
Der bisher nicht erforschte Aspekt zur synergistischen Wirkung des MEK Inhibitors AZD6244 und des dualen PI3K/Akt/mTOR Inhibitors NVP-BEZ235 nach Bestrahlung wurde an der Glioblastomzelllinie SNB19 und der Lungenkarzinomzelllinie A549 anhand der Koloniebildungsfähigkeit der behandelten Zellen untersucht. Eine Behandlung mit dem MEK Inhibitor bewirkte lediglich eine moderate Radiosensibilisierung, wohin-gegen der duale PI3K/Akt/mTOR Inhibitor beide Zelllinien in stärkerem Maße sensibilisierte. Eine Kombination beider Inhibitoren resultierte bei keiner Zelllinie in einer Verstärkung der durch NVP-BEZ235 induzierten Radiosensibilisierung. Eine mögliche Erklärung für die fehlende Synergie im Bezug auf die Radiosensibilisierung können die gegensätzlichen Effekte der beiden Inhibitoren auf den Zellzyklus sein. Auf Proteinebene führte eine simultane Behandlung mit beiden Substanzen zur Inhibition beider Signalwege. Darüber hinaus war in SNB19 Zellen eine verstärkte Dephosphorylierung von Rb und ein erhöhter Anteil an G1-Phase Zellen bei kombinierter Gabe der Inhibitoren zu beobachten.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnte somit die radiosensibilisierende Wirkung von NVP-BEZ235 in Abhängigkeit vom Behandlungsschema gezeigt werden. Ferner wurde nachgewiesen, dass die Radiosensibilisierung unabhängig von der Sauerstoffversorgung sowie von den PTEN und TP53 Mutationsstatus der Tumorzellen ist. Die kombinierte Inhibition der MAPK und PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signalwege resultierte zwar in einem verstärkten zytostatischen, aber nicht in einem verstärkten radiosensibilisierenden Effekt. Da allerdings eine große Anzahl verschiedener Inhibitoren der MAPK/Erk und der PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signalkaskade verfügbar sind, sollte die kombinatorische Inhibition dieser Signalwege systematisch weiter verfolgt werden. Die vorliegende Arbeit liefert auch weitere grundlegende Erkenntnisse zu den molekularen Mechanismen der Radiosensibilisierung durch NVP-BEZ235, die auch auf Verknüpfungen und Wechselwirkungen mit anderen als den bisher bekannten Proteinen hindeuten, die für jeden Inhibitor aufgeklärt werden müssen, um eine effektive radiosensibilisierende Wirkung vorher-sagen zu können.
Certain pathogenic bacteria adopt an intracellular lifestyle and proliferate in eukaryotic host cells. The intracellular niche protects the bacteria from cellular and humoral components of the mammalian immune system, and at the same time, allows the bacteria to gain access to otherwise restricted nutrient sources. Yet, intracellular protection and access to nutrients comes with a price, i.e., the bacteria need to overcome cell-autonomous defense mechanisms, such as the bactericidal endocytic pathway. While a few bacteria rupture the early phagosome and escape into the host cytoplasm, most intracellular pathogens form a distinct, degradation-resistant and replication-permissive membranous compartment. Intracellular bacteria that form unique pathogen vacuoles include Legionella, Mycobacterium, Chlamydia, Simkania, and Salmonella species. In order to understand the formation of these pathogen niches on a global scale and in a comprehensive and quantitative manner, an inventory of compartment-associated host factors is required. To this end, the intact pathogen compartments need to be isolated, purified and biochemically characterized. Here, we review recent progress on the isolation and purification of pathogen-modified vacuoles and membranes, as well as their proteomic characterization by mass spectrometry and different validation approaches. These studies provide the basis for further investigations on the specific mechanisms of pathogen-driven compartment formation.
The goal of the project VascuBone is to develop a tool box for bone regeneration, which on one hand fulfills basic requirements (e.g. biocompatibility, properties of the surface, strength of the biomaterials) and on the other hand is freely combinable with what is needed in the respective patient's situation. The tool box will include a variation of biocompatible biomaterials and cell types, FDA-approved growth factors, material modification technologies, simulation and analytical tools like molecular imaging-based in vivo diagnostics, which can be combined for the specific medical need. This tool box will be used to develop translational approaches for regenerative therapies of different types of bone defects. This project receives funding from the European Union's Seventh Framework Program (VascuBone 2010).
The present study is embedded into this EU project. The intention of this study is to assess the changes of the global gene expression patterns of endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) after direct cell-cell contact as well as the influence of conditioned medium gained from MSCs on EPCs and vice versa. EPCs play an important role in postnatal vasculogenesis. An intact blood vessel system is crucial for all tissues, including bone. Latest findings in the field of bone fracture healing and repair by the use of tissue engineering constructs seeded with MSCs raised the idea of combining MSCs and EPCs to enhance vascularization and therefore support survival of the newly built bone tissue. RNA samples from both experimental set ups were hybridized on Affymetrix GeneChips® HG-U133 Plus 2.0 and analyzed by microarray technology. Bioinformatic analysis was applied to the microarray data and verified by RT-PCR.
This study gives detailed information on how EPCs and MSCs communicate with each other and therefore gives insights into the signaling pathways of the musculoskeletal system. These insights will be the base for further functional studies on protein level for the purpose of tissue regeneration. A better understanding of the cell communication of MSCs and EPCs and subsequently the targeting of relevant factors opens a variety of new opportunities, especially in the field of tissue engineering.
The second part of the present work was to develop an ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) for a target protein from the lists of differentially expressed genes revealed by the microarray analysis. This project was in cooperation with Immundiagnostik AG, Bensheim, Germany. The development of the ELISA aimed to have an in vitro diagnostic tool to monitor e.g. the quality of cell seeded tissue engineering constructs. The target protein chosen from the lists was klotho. Klotho seemed to be a very promising candidate since it is described in the literature as anti-aging protein. Furthermore, studies with klotho knock-out mice showed that these animals suffered from several age-related diseases e.g. osteoporosis and atherosclerosis. As a co-receptor for FGF23, klotho plays an important role in bone metabolism. The present study will be the first one to show that klotho is up-regulated in EPCs after direct cell-cell contact with MSCs. The development of an assay with a high sensitivity on one hand and the capacity to differentiate between secreted and shedded klotho on the other hand will allow further functional studies of this protein and offers a new opportunity in medical diagnostics especially in the field of metabolic bone disease.
Aphids are a major concern in agricultural crops worldwide, and control by natural enemies is an essential component of the ecological intensification of agriculture. Although the complexity of agricultural landscapes is known to influence natural enemies of pests, few studies have measured the degree of pest control by different enemy guilds across gradients in landscape complexity. Here, we use multiple natural-enemy exclosures replicated in 18 fields across a gradient in landscape complexity to investigate (1) the strength of natural pest control across landscapes, measured as the difference between pest pressure in the presence and in the absence of natural enemies; (2) the differential contributions of natural enemy guilds to pest control, and the nature of their interactions across landscapes. We show that natural pest control of aphids increased up to six-fold from simple to complex landscapes. In the absence of pest control, aphid population growth was higher in complex than simple landscapes, but was reduced by natural enemies to similar growth rates across all landscapes. The effects of enemy guilds were landscape-dependent. Particularly in complex landscapes, total pest control was supplied by the combined contribution of flying insects and ground-dwellers. Birds had little overall impact on aphid control. Despite evidence for intraguild predation of flying insects by ground-dwellers and birds, the overall effect of enemy guilds on aphid control was complementary. Understanding pest control services at large spatial scales is critical to increase the success of ecological intensification schemes. Our results suggest that, where aphids are the main pest of concern, interactions between natural enemies are largely complementary and lead to a strongly positive effect of landscape complexity on pest control. Increasing the availability of seminatural habitats in agricultural landscapes may thus benefit not only natural enemies, but also the effectiveness of aphid natural pest control.
Das Multiple Myelom (MM) ist eine durch monoklonale Vermehrung terminal differenzierter Antikörper-produzierender B-Lymphozyten (Plasmazellen) im Knochenmark charakterisierte maligne Krankheit, die sich v.a. in osteolytischen Knochendestruktionen, hämatopoetischer und Niereninsuffizienz äußert. Verbesserte Therapieansätze wie die Hochdosis-Chemotherapie mit Melphalan und anschließender autologer Stammzelltransplantation sowie die Einführung neuer pharmakologischer Substanzklassen (Proteasom-Inhibitoren, Cereblon-bindende Thalidomidderivate) führten zu einer Verlängerung der durchschnittlichen Überlebenszeit, für die meisten der Patienten ist die Erkrankung jedoch derzeit unheilbar. Die Erforschung neuer potenzieller therapeutischer Angriffspunkte auf Grund pathobiologischer Erkenntnisse bleibt daher unabdingbar. Ein Ansatz zur Verbesserung des Verständnisses der Pathogenese ist die funktionelle, molekulare und genetische Analyse des Signalnetzwerkes im MM. Im Zusammenhang mit diesem Konzept wurde entdeckt, dass wachstums-regulierende Signalwege in MM Zellen aktiviert oder dereguliert sind und zum Überleben und der Proliferation des Tumors beitragen. So konnte beispielsweise von unserer Arbeitsgruppe bereits gezeigt werden, dass onkogenes Ras essentiell zum Überleben der MM Zellen beiträgt. Da Ras derzeit mangels spezifischer Inhibitoren pharmakologisch nicht angreifbar ist, stellen weitere funktionelle Bestandteile des Signalweges eine potenzielle therapeutische Zielstruktur dar. Während die Blockade von MEK1/2 in MM Zellen keinen Einfluss auf das Überleben hatte, konnte durch die Blockade von Raf in ersten Tests unserer Arbeitsgruppe Apoptose hervorgerufen werden. Aus diesem Grund habe ich in der vorliegenden Arbeit zur Evaluation eines neuen Therapieansatzes die Rolle der Raf-abhängigen Signaltransduktion eingehend untersucht. Als Grundlage diente dabei die Hypothese, dass die Raf-Kinasen entscheidende Effektoren der durch onkogenes Ras vermittelten apoptotischen Effekte darstellen. In einem ersten Schritt konnte ich nachweisen, dass alle drei Raf-Isoformen (A-, B- und C-Raf) in humanen MM Zelllinien und in primären MM Zellen aktiviert sind. Mittels shRNA-vermittelter, Isoform-spezifischer Raf-Knockdown-Experimente konnte ich zeigen, dass nur ein simultaner Knockdown aller Isoformen, d.h. ein Pan-Raf-Knockdown, zu einer De-Phosphorylierung von MEK1/2 und ERK1/2 führte. Dieser Versuch ließ sich mittels pharmakologischer Raf-Inhibition, bei der ebenfalls nur eine Pan-Raf-Blockade zu einer Herunterregulation von MEK1/2 und ERK1/2 in MM Zellen führte, bestätigen. Das MEK/ERK-Modul stellte somit einen hervorragenden Surrogat- und Biomarker für die Pan-Raf-Aktivität dar. Im Gegensatz zur Blockade des MEK/ERK-Moduls führte eine Hemmung der Pan-Raf-Aktivität mittels shRNA oder pharmakologischer Inhibitoren in allen untersuchten Zelllinien und in der Mehrheit der primären MM Zellen zu einer starken Induktion von Apoptose. Da das Ansprechen auf eine Pan-Raf-Blockade nicht mit dem Ras-Mutationsstatus korrelierte, könnten die Raf-Kinasen eine von onkogenem Ras unabhängie Qualität als therapeutische Zielstruktur aufweisen. Zur Untersuchung möglicher MEK/ERK-unabhängiger Effektormechanismen der Pan-Raf-Inhibition habe ich die mRNA-basierten Genexpressionsprofile von INA-6 Zellen nach pharmakologischer Pan-Raf- oder MEK-Inhibition verglichen. Dabei führte die Pan-Raf-Inhibition zu einer Regulation von wesentlich mehr Genen, wobei sich auch die Art der regulierten Gene unterschied, darunter Gene mit tumorrelevanten Funktionen wie Regulation von Proliferation, Zellzyklus und Apoptose. Für eine dieser Gengruppen, die Gruppe der PI3K-abhängigen, mTOR-assoziierten Gene, konnte ich eine Regulation auch auf der Proteinebene nachweisen: die Phosphorylierungen von mTOR, p70S6K, Rb und AKT und die Expression von CyclinD1 und PDK1 waren nach Pan-Raf-Inhibition, nicht jedoch nach MEK-Blockade herunterreguliert. Dieses Ergebnis deutet auf eine Ko-Regulation der PI3K-abhängigen Signaltransduktion durch die Raf-kinasen hin. Mittels spezifischer PI3K-Inhibitoren ließ sich sowohl bei der Regulation der untersuchten Proteine als auch bei der Induktion von Apoptose eine deutliche Verstärkung der Pan-Raf-Inhibition in HMZL und in primären Zellen erzielen. Zusammengefasst zeigt diese Arbeit, dass die Pan-Raf-Blockade eine neue Therapiemöglichkeit darstellt, die durch Kombination mit einer PI3K/AKT-Inhibition noch verstärkt werden kann.
Optomotor-blind negatively regulates Drosophila eye development by blocking Jak/STAT signaling
(2015)
Organ formation requires a delicate balance of positive and negative regulators. In Drosophila eye development, wingless (wg) is expressed at the lateral margins of the eye disc and serves to block retinal development. The T-box gene optomotor-blind (omb) is expressed in a similar pattern and is regulated by Wg. Omb mediates part of Wg activity in blocking eye development. Omb exerts its function primarily by blocking cell proliferation. These effects occur predominantly in the ventral margin. Our results suggest that the primary effect of Omb is the blocking of Jak/STAT signaling by repressing transcription of upd which encodes the Jak receptor ligand Unpaired.
Cyclic GMP (cGMP) signalling regulates multiple biological functions through activation of protein kinase G and cyclic nucleotide-gated (CNG) channels. In sensory neurons, cGMP permits signal modulation, amplification and encoding, before depolarization. Here we implement a guanylyl cyclase rhodopsin from Blastocladiella emersonii as a new optogenetic tool (BeCyclOp), enabling rapid light-triggered cGMP increase in heterologous cells (Xenopus oocytes, HEK293T cells) and in Caenorhabditis elegans. Among five different fungal CyclOps, exhibiting unusual eight transmembrane topologies and cytosolic N-termini, BeCyclOp is the superior optogenetic tool (light/dark activity ratio: 5,000; no cAMP production; turnover (20 °C) ~17 cGMPs\(^{-1}\)). Via co-expressed CNG channels (OLF in oocytes, TAX-2/4 in C. elegans muscle), BeCyclOp photoactivation induces a rapid conductance increase and depolarization at very low light intensities. In O\(_2\)/CO\(_2\) sensory neurons of C. elegans, BeCyclOp activation evokes behavioural responses consistent with their normal sensory function. BeCyclOp therefore enables precise and rapid optogenetic manipulation of cGMP levels in cells and animals.