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This thesis elucidates patterns and drivers of invertebrate herbivory, herbivore diversity, and community-level biomass along elevational and land use gradients at Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania.
Chapter I provides background information on the response and predictor variables, study system, and the study design. First, I give an overview of the elevational patterns of species diversity/richness and herbivory published in the literature. The overview illuminates existing debates on elevational patterns of species diversity/richness and herbivory. In connection to these patterns, I also introduce several hypotheses and mechanisms put forward to explain macroecological patterns of species richness. Furthermore, I explain the main variables used to test hypotheses. Finally, I describe the study system and the study design used.
Chapter II explores the patterns of invertebrate herbivory and their underlying drivers along extensive elevational and land use gradients on the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro. I recorded standing leaf herbivory from leaf chewers, leaf miners and gall-inducing insects on 55 study sites located in natural and anthropogenic habitats distributed from 866 to 3060 meters above sea level (m asl) on Mt. Kilimanjaro. Standing leaf herbivory was related to climatic variables [mean annual temperature - (MAT) and mean annual precipitation - (MAP)], net primary productivity (NPP) and plant functional traits (leaf traits) [specific leaf area (SLA), carbon to nitrogen ratio (CN), and nitrogen to phosphorous ratio (NP)]. Results revealed an unimodal pattern of total leaf herbivory along the elevation gradient in natural habitats. Findings also revealed differences in the levels and patterns of herbivory among feeding guilds and between anthropogenic and natural habitats. Changes in NP and CN ratios which were closely linked to NPP were the strongest predictors of leaf herbivory. Our study uncovers the role of leaf nutrient stoichiometry and its linkages to climate in explaining the variation in leaf herbivory along climatic gradients.
Chapter III presents patterns and unravels direct and indirect effects of resource (food) abundance (NPP), resource (food) diversity [Functional Dispersion (FDis)], resource quality (SLA, NP, and CN rations), and climate variables (MAT and MAP) on species diversity of phytophagous beetles. Data were collected from 65 study sites located in natural and anthropogenic habitats distributed from 866 to 4550 m asl on the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro. Sweep net and beating methods were used to collect a total of 3,186 phytophagous beetles representing 21 families and 304 morphospecies. Two groups, weevils (Curculionidae) and leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) were the largest and most diverse families represented with 898 and 1566 individuals, respectively. Results revealed complex (bimodal) and dissimilar patterns of Chao1-estimated species richness (hereafter referred to as species diversity) along elevation and land use gradients. Results from path analysis showed that temperature and climate-mediated changes in NPP had a significant positive direct and indirect effect on species diversity of phytophagous beetles, respectively. The results also revealed that the effect of NPP (via beetles abundance and diversity of food resources) on species diversity is stronger than that of temperature. Since we found that factors affecting species diversity were intimately linked to climate, I concluded that predicted climatic changes over the coming decades will likely alter the species diversity patterns which we observe today.
Chapter IV presents patterns and unravels the direct and indirect effects of climate, NPP and anthropogenic disturbances on species richness and community-level biomass of wild large mammals which represent endothermic organisms and the most important group of vertebrate herbivores. Data were collected from 66 study sites located in natural and anthropogenic habitats distributed from 870 to 4550 m asl on the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro. Mammals were collected using camera traps and used path analysis to disentangle the direct and indirect effects of climatic variables, NPP, land use, land area, levels of habitat protection and occurrence of domesticated mammals on the patterns of richness and community-level biomass of wild mammals, respectively. Results showed unimodal patterns for species richness and community-level biomass of wild mammals along elevation gradients and that the patterns differed depending on the type of feeding guild. Findings from path analysis showed that net primary productivity and levels of habitat protection had a strong direct effect on species richness and community-level biomass of wild mammals whereas temperature had an insignificant direct effect. Findings show the importance of climate-mediated food resources in determining patterns of species richness of large mammals. While temperature is among key predictors of species richness in several ectotherms, its direct influence in determining species richness of wild mammals was insignificant. Findings show the sensitivity of wild mammals to anthropogenic influences and underscore the importance of protected areas in conserving biodiversity.
In conclusion, despite a multitude of data sets on species diversity and ecosystem functions along broad climatic gradients, there is little mechanistic understanding of the underlying causes. Findings obtained in the three studies illustrate their contribution to the scientific debates on the mechanisms underlying patterns of herbivory and diversity along elevation gradients. Results present strong evidence that plant functional traits play a key role in determining invertebrate herbivory and species diversity along elevation gradients and that, their strong interdependence with climate and anthropogenic activities will shape these patterns in future. Additionally, findings from path analysis demonstrated that herbivore diversity, community-level biomass, and herbivory are strongly influenced by climate (either directly or indirectly). Therefore, the predicted climatic changes are expected to dictate ecological patterns, biotic interactions, and energy and nutrient fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems in the coming decades with stronger impacts probably occurring in natural ecosystems. Furthermore, findings demonstrated the significance of land use effects in shaping ecological patterns. As anthropogenic pressure is advancing towards more pristine higher elevations, I advocate conservation measures which are responsive to and incorporate human dimensions to curb the situation. Although our findings emanate from observational studies which have to take several confounding factors into account, we have managed to demonstrate global change responses in real ecosystems and fully established organisms with a wide range of interactions which are unlikely to be captured in artificial experiments. Nonetheless, I recommend additional experimental studies addressing the effect of top-down control by natural enemies on herbivore diversity and invertebrate herbivory in order to deepen our understanding of the mechanisms driving macroecological patterns along elevation gradients.
This study investigated patterns of arthropod community organisation and the processes structuring these communities on a range of different tree species in a natural West African savannah (Comoé National Park, Côte d'Ivoire). It described and analysed patterns of arthropod distribution on the level of whole communities, on the level of multiple-species interactions, and on the level of individual insect species. Community samples were obtained by applying (i) canopy fogging for mature individuals of three tree species (Anogeissus leiocarpa, Burkea africana, Crossopteryx febrifuga) and (ii) a modified beating technique allowing to sample the complete arthropod communities of the respective study plants for medium-sized (up to 3 m) individuals of two other species (Combretum fragrans, Pseudocedrela kotschyi). General information on ant-plant interactions was retrieved from ant community comparisons of the mature savannah trees. In addition, ant-ant, ant-plant and ant-herbivore interactions were studied in more detail considering the ant assemblages on the myrmecophilic tree Pseudocedrela kotschyi. Herbivore-plant interactions were investigated on a multiple-species level (interrelationships between herbivores and Pseudocedrela trees) and on a species level (detailed studies of interrelationships between herbivorous beetles and caterpillars and the host tree Combretum fragrans). The studies on individual herbivore species were complemented by a study on an abundant ant species, clarifying not only the relationship between host plant and associated animal but allowing also to look at interactive (competitive) aspects of community organisation. The study demonstrated for the first time that (i) the structure of beetle communities on tropical trees can be strongly dependent on the host tree species, (ii) individual trees can host specific arthropod communities whose characteristic structure is stable over years and is strongly determined by the individual tree's attributes, (iii) ants can express a pronounced fidelity to single leaves as foraging area and can thereby determine distribution patterns of other ants, (iv) intraspecifically variable palatability of plants for insect herbivores can be stable over years and can influence the distribution of herbivores that can distinguish between individual hosts according to palatability and (v) intraspecific host plant change can positively affect fitness of herbivores if host plant quality is variable. In general, the present study contributes to our knowledge of anthropogenically unaltered processes affecting community assembly in a natural environment. The fundamental understanding of these processes is crucial for the identification of anthropogenic alterations and the establishment of sustainable management measures. The study points out the important role local factors can play for the distribution of organisms and thereby for community organisation. It emphasises the relevance of small scale heterogeneity of the abiotic and biotic environment to biodiversity and the need to consider these factors for development of effective conservation and restoration strategies.
Pea Aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae) Have Diurnal Rhythms When Raised Independently of a Host Plant
(2016)
Seasonal timing is assumed to involve the circadian clock, an endogenous mechanism to track time and measure day length. Some debate persists, however, and aphids were among the first organisms for which circadian clock involvement was questioned. Inferences about links to phenology are problematic, as the clock itself is little investigated in aphids. For instance, it is unknown whether aphids possess diurnal rhythms at all. Possibly, the close interaction with host plants prevents independent measurements of rhythmicity. We reared the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) on an artificial diet, and recorded survival, moulting, and honeydew excretion. Despite their plant-dependent life style, aphids were independently rhythmic under light–dark conditions. This first demonstration of diurnal aphid rhythms shows that aphids do not simply track the host plant’s rhythmicity.
Obligate intracellular pathogenic Chlamydia trachomatis express several serine proteases whose roles in chlamydial development and pathogenicity are not completely understood. The chlamydial protease CPAF is expressed during the replicative phase of the chlamydial developmental cycle and is secreted into the lumen of the Chlamydia-containing vacuole called inclusion. How the secreted protease is activated in the inclusion lumen is currently not fully understood. We have identified human serine peptidase inhibitor PI15 as a potential host factor involved in the regulation of CPAF activation. Silencing expression as well as over expression of PI15 affected normal development of Chlamydia. PI15 was transported into the chlamydial inclusion lumen where it co-localized with CPAF aggregates. We show that PI15 binds to the CPAF zymogen and potentially induces CPAF protease activity at low concentrations. However, at high concentrations PI15 inhibits CPAF activity possibly by blocking its protease domain. Our findings shed light on a new aspect of chlamydial host co-evolution which involves the recruitment of host cell proteins into the inclusion to control the activation of bacterial proteases like CPAF that are important for the normal development of Chlamydia.
The larvae of the cabbage root fly induce serious damage to cultivated crops of the family Brassicaceae. We here report the biochemical characterisation of neuropeptides from the central nervous system and neurohemal organs, as well as regulatory peptides from enteroendocrine midgut cells of the cabbage maggot. By LC-MALDI-TOF/TOF and chemical labelling with 4-sulfophenyl isothiocyanate, 38 peptides could be identified, representing major insect peptide families: allatostatin A, allatostatin C, FMRFamide-like peptides, kinin, CAPA peptides, pyrokinins, sNPF, myosuppressin, corazonin, SIFamide, sulfakinins, tachykinins, NPLP1-peptides, adipokinetic hormone and CCHamide 1. We also report a new peptide (Yamide) which appears to be homolog to an amidated eclosion hormone-associated peptide in several Drosophila species. Immunocytochemical characterisation of the distribution of several classes of peptide-immunoreactive neurons and enteroendocrine cells shows a very similar but not identical peptide distribution to Drosophila. Since peptides regulate many vital physiological and behavioural processes such as moulting or feeding, our data may initiate the pharmacological testing and development of new specific peptide-based protection methods against the cabbage root fly and its larva.
Egress of malaria parasites from the host cell requires the concerted rupture of its enveloping membranes. Hence, we investigated the role of the plasmodial perforin-like protein PPLP2 in the egress of Plasmodium falciparum from erythrocytes. PPLP2 is expressed in blood stage schizonts and mature gametocytes. The protein localizes in vesicular structures, which in activated gametocytes discharge PPLP2 in a calcium-dependent manner. PPLP2 comprises a MACPF domain and recombinant PPLP2 has haemolytic activities towards erythrocytes. PPLP2-deficient [PPLP2(−)] merozoites show normal egress dynamics during the erythrocytic replication cycle, but activated PPLP2(−) gametocytes were unable to leave erythrocytes and stayed trapped within these cells. While the parasitophorous vacuole membrane ruptured normally, the activated PPLP2(−) gametocytes were unable to permeabilize the erythrocyte membrane and to release the erythrocyte cytoplasm. In consequence, transmission of PPLP2(−) parasites to the Anopheles vector was reduced. Pore-forming equinatoxin II rescued both PPLP2(−) gametocyte exflagellation and parasite transmission. The pore sealant Tetronic 90R4, on the other hand, caused trapping of activated wild-type gametocytes within the enveloping erythrocytes, thus mimicking the PPLP2(−) loss-of-function phenotype. We propose that the haemolytic activity of PPLP2 is essential for gametocyte egress due to permeabilization of the erythrocyte membrane and depletion of the erythrocyte cytoplasm.
Precision-cut tumor slices (PCTS) maintain tissue heterogeneity concerning different cell types and preserve the tumor microenvironment (TME). Typically, PCTS are cultured statically on a filter support at an air–liquid interface, which gives rise to intra-slice gradients during culture. To overcome this problem, we developed a perfusion air culture (PAC) system that can provide a continuous and controlled oxygen medium, and drug supply. This makes it an adaptable ex vivo system for evaluating drug responses in a tissue-specific microenvironment. PCTS from mouse xenografts (MCF-7, H1437) and primary human ovarian tumors (primary OV) cultured in the PAC system maintained the morphology, proliferation, and TME for more than 7 days, and no intra-slice gradients were observed. Cultured PCTS were analyzed for DNA damage, apoptosis, and transcriptional biomarkers for the cellular stress response. For the primary OV slices, cisplatin treatment induced a diverse increase in the cleavage of caspase-3 and PD-L1 expression, indicating a heterogeneous response to drug treatment between patients. Immune cells were preserved throughout the culturing period, indicating that immune therapy can be analyzed. The novel PAC system is suitable for assessing individual drug responses and can thus be used as a preclinical model to predict in vivo therapy responses.
Pericentric intrachromosomal insertion responsible for recurrence of del(11)(p13p14) in a family
(1993)
The combined use of qualitative and quantitative analysis of I I p I 3 polymorphic markers tagether with chromosomal in situ suppression hybridization (CISS) with biotin labeled probes mapping to I I p allowed us to characterize a complex rearrangement segregating in a family. We detected a pericentric intrachromosomal insertion responsible (or recurrence of del( I I )(p 13p 14) in the family: an insertion of band I I p 13-p 14 carrying the genes for predisposition to Wilms' tumor, WT I, and for aniridia, AN2, into the long arm of chromosome I I in II q 13-q 1<4. Asymptomatic balanced carriers were observed over three generations. Classical cytogenetics had failed to detect this anomaly in the balanced carriers, who were first considered to be somatic mosaics for del( II )(p 13). Two of these women gave birth to children carrying a deleted chromosome II. most likely resulting from the loss of the I I p 13 band inserted in I I q. Although in both cases the deletion encompassed exactly the same maternally inherited markers, there was a wide Variation in clinical expression. One child, with the karyotype 46,XY,del(ll)(pllpl4), presented the full-blown WAGR syndrome with anlridia, mental retardation, Wilms' tumor, and pseudohermaphroditism, but also had proteinuria and glomerular sclerosis reminiscent of Drash syndrome. In contrast, the other one, a girl with the karyotype 46,XX,del( I I )(p I 3), only had aniridia. Although a specific set of mutational sites has been observed in Drash patients, these findings suggest that the loss of one copy of the WTI gene can result in similar genital and kidney abnormalities.
Persistence has evolved as a potent survival strategy to overcome adverse environmental conditions. This capability is common to almost all bacteria, including all human bacterial pathogens and likely connected to chronic infections caused by some of these pathogens. Although the majority of a bacterial cell population will be killed by the particular stressors, like antibiotics, oxygen and nitrogen radicals, nutrient starvation and others, a varying subpopulation (termed persisters) will withstand the stress situation and will be able to revive once the stress is removed. Several factors and pathways have been identified in the past that apparently favor the formation of persistence, such as various toxin/antitoxin modules or stringent response together with the alarmone (p)ppGpp. However, persistence can occur stochastically in few cells even of stress-free bacterial populations. Growth of these cells could then be induced by the stress conditions. In this review, we focus on the persister formation of human intracellular bacterial pathogens, some of which belong to the most successful persister producers but lack some or even all of the assumed persistence-triggering factors and pathways. We propose a mechanism for the persister formation of these bacterial pathogens which is based on their specific intracellular bipartite metabolism. We postulate that this mode of metabolism ultimately leads, under certain starvation conditions, to the stalling of DNA replication initiation which may be causative for the persister state.
Aphids are a major concern in agricultural crops worldwide, and control by natural enemies is an essential component of the ecological intensification of agriculture. Although the complexity of agricultural landscapes is known to influence natural enemies of pests, few studies have measured the degree of pest control by different enemy guilds across gradients in landscape complexity. Here, we use multiple natural-enemy exclosures replicated in 18 fields across a gradient in landscape complexity to investigate (1) the strength of natural pest control across landscapes, measured as the difference between pest pressure in the presence and in the absence of natural enemies; (2) the differential contributions of natural enemy guilds to pest control, and the nature of their interactions across landscapes. We show that natural pest control of aphids increased up to six-fold from simple to complex landscapes. In the absence of pest control, aphid population growth was higher in complex than simple landscapes, but was reduced by natural enemies to similar growth rates across all landscapes. The effects of enemy guilds were landscape-dependent. Particularly in complex landscapes, total pest control was supplied by the combined contribution of flying insects and ground-dwellers. Birds had little overall impact on aphid control. Despite evidence for intraguild predation of flying insects by ground-dwellers and birds, the overall effect of enemy guilds on aphid control was complementary. Understanding pest control services at large spatial scales is critical to increase the success of ecological intensification schemes. Our results suggest that, where aphids are the main pest of concern, interactions between natural enemies are largely complementary and lead to a strongly positive effect of landscape complexity on pest control. Increasing the availability of seminatural habitats in agricultural landscapes may thus benefit not only natural enemies, but also the effectiveness of aphid natural pest control.
Increasing natural pest control in agricultural fields is an important aim of ecological intensification. Combined effects of landscape context and local placement of agri‐environmental schemes (AES) on natural pest control and within‐field distance functions of natural pest control agents have rarely been addressed but might affect the distribution of biocontrol providers. Importantly, it is currently unknown whether ecosystem services provided by adjacent AES are consistent for different crop types during crop rotation.
In this study, we assessed whether crop rotation from oilseed rape to cereals altered within‐field distance functions of ground‐dwelling predators from adjacent agri‐environmental fields along a gradient in landscape context. Additionally, we recorded crop pests, predation rates, parasitoids as well as crop yields on a total of 30 study sites.
Distance functions varied between trophic levels: Carabid richness decreased while densities of carabid beetles, staphylinid beetles as well as crop yields increased towards the field centres. Distance functions of parasitoids and pests were modulated by the amount of semi‐natural habitat in the surrounding landscape, while the effects of adjacent AES were limited.
Distance decay functions found for ground‐dwelling predators in oilseed rape in the previous year were not always present in cereals. Increasing distance to the field edge also increased effects of crop rotation on carabid beetle assemblages, indicating a source habitat function of field edges.
Synthesis and applications. Distance functions of natural pest control are not universal and the effects of agri‐environmental schemes (AES) in different adjacent crops during crop rotation vary and depend on ecological contrasts. A network of semi‐natural habitats and spatially optimized AES habitats can benefit pest control in agricultural landscapes, but constraints as a result of crop type need to be addressed by annually targeted, spatially shifting agri‐environment schemes for different crops.
Plant communities in the European Alps are assumed to be highly affected by climate change, as the temperature rise in this region is above the global average. It is predicted that higher temperatures will lead to advanced snowmelt dates and that the number of extreme weather events will increase. The aims of this study were to determine the impacts of extreme climatic events on flower phenology and to assess whether those impacts differed between lower and higher altitudes. In 2010, an experiment simulating advanced and delayed snowmelt as well as a drought event was conducted along an altitudinal transect approximately every 250 m (600–2000 m above sea level) in the Berchtesgaden National Park, Germany. The study showed that flower phenology was strongly affected by altitude; however, there were few effects of the manipulative treatments on flowering. The effects of advanced snowmelt were significantly greater at higher than at lower sites, but no significant difference was found between both altitudinal bands for the other treatments. The response of flower phenology to temperature declined through the season and the length of flowering duration was not significantly influenced by treatments. The stronger effect of advanced snowmelt at higher altitudes may be a response to differences in treatment intensity across the gradient. Consequently, shifts in the date of snowmelt due to global warming may affect species more at higher than at lower altitudes, as changes may be more pronounced at higher altitudes. These data indicate a rather low risk of drought events on flowering phenology in the Bavarian Alps.
Plant communities in the European Alps are assumed to be highly affected by climate change since temperature rise in this region is above the global average. It is predicted that higher temperatures will lead to advanced snowmelt dates and that the number of extreme weather events will increase. The aims of this study were to determine the impacts of extreme climatic events on flower phenology and to assess whether those impacts differed between lower and higher altitudes. In 2010 an experiment simulating advanced and delayed snowmelt as well as drought event was conducted along an altitudinal transect ca. every 250m (600-2000 m a.s.l.) in the Berchtesgaden National Park, Germany. The study showed that flower phenology is strongly affected by altitude; however there were few effects of the manipulative treatments on flowering. The effects of advanced snowmelt were significantly greater at higher than at lower sites, but no significant difference was found between both altitudinal bands for the other treatments. The response of flower phenology to temperature declined through the season and the length of flowering duration was not significantly influenced by treatments. The stronger effect of advanced snowmelt at higher altitudes might be a response to differences in treatment intensity across the gradient. Consequently, shifts in the date of snowmelt due to global warming may affect species more at higher than at lower altitudes since changes may be more pronounced at higher altitudes. Our data indicate a rather low risk of drought events on flowering phenology in the Bavarian Alps.
The development of ethanol tolerance is due to changes in synaptic plasticity. Since the mechanisms mediating synaptic plasticity are probably defective in the mutant hangAE10, it was a goal of the present study to find out how HANG contributes to synaptic plasticity. In particular, it was important to clarify in which neuronal process HANG plays a role. Antibody stainings against HANG revealed that the protein is localized in all neuronal nuclei of larval and adult brains; the staining is absent in hangAE10, thus confirming that this P-element insertion stock is a protein null for HANG. Detailed analysis of the subnuclear distribution of HANG showed that HANG immunoreactivity is enriched at distinct spots in the nucleus in a speckled pattern; these speckles are found at the inside of the nuclear membrane and do not colocalize with chromatin nor with the nucleolus; thus, HANG is probably involved in the stabilization, processing or export of RNAs. As synaptic plasticity can be studied in single neurons at the larval neuromuscular junction, the morphology of the synaptic terminals of hangAE10 mutants was analyzed at muscle 6/7, segment A4. These studies revealed that hangAE10 mutants display a 40 % increase in bouton number and axonal branch length; in addition, some boutons have an abnormal hourglass-like shape, suggesting that they are arrested in a semi-separated state following the initiation of bouton division. The increase in bouton number of hang mutants is mainly due to an increase in numbers of type Ib boutons. The analysis of the distribution of several synaptic markers in hang mutants did not show abnormalities. The presynaptic expression of HANG in hang mutants rescues the increase in bouton number and axonal branch length, thus proving that the phenotypes seen in the P-element insertion hangAE10 are attributable to the lack of HANG rather than to effects of the P-element marker rosy or to a secondary hit on the same chromsome during mutagensis. This finding is further supported by the fact that postsynaptic expression of HANG does not rescue the abnormal NMJ morphology of hangAE10. Alterations in cAMP levels regulate the number of boutons; since hang mutants display an increase in bouton number, the questions was whether this morphological abnormality was due to defects in cAMP signalling. To test this hypothesis, hangAE10 NMJs were compared to those of the hypomorphic allele dnc1 that has a defective cAMP cascade. Some aspects of the NMJ phenotype (e.g. the increase in bouton number and the unaltered ratio of active zones per bouton area) are similar in hangAE10 and dnc1, other differ. Expression of a UAS-dnc transgene in hangAE10 mutants does not modify the phenotype. In summary, the results of this study indicate that nuclear protein HANG might be involved in isoform-specific splicing of genes required for synaptic plasticity at the NMJ.
Obesity is a major risk factor predisposing to the development of peripheral insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes (T2D). Elevated food intake and/or decreased energy expenditure promotes body weight gain and acquisition of adipose tissue. Number of studies implicated phospholipase D (PLD) enzymes and their product, phosphatidic acid (PA), in regulation of signaling cascades controlling energy intake, energy dissipation and metabolic homeostasis. However, the impact of PLD enzymes on regulation of metabolism has not been directly determined so far. In this study we utilized mice deficient for two major PLD isoforms, PLD1 and PLD2, to assess the impact of these enzymes on regulation of metabolic homeostasis. We showed that mice lacking PLD1 or PLD2 consume more food than corresponding control animals. Moreover, mice deficient for PLD2, but not PLD1, present reduced energy expenditure. In addition, deletion of either of the PLD enzymes resulted in development of elevated body weight and increased adipose tissue content in aged animals. Consistent with the fact that elevated content of adipose tissue predisposes to the development of hyperlipidemia and insulin resistance, characteristic for the pre-diabetic state, we observed that Pld1\(^{-/-}\) and Pld2\(^{-/-}\) mice present elevated free fatty acids (FFA) levels and are insulin as well as glucose intolerant. In conclusion, our data suggest that deficiency of PLD1 or PLD2 activity promotes development of overweight and diabetes.
The composition and richness of herbivore and plant assemblages change along climatic gradients, but knowledge about associated shifts in specialization is scarce and lacks controlling for the abundance and phylogeny of interaction partners. Thus, we aimed to test whether the specialization of phytophagous insects in insect‐plant interaction networks decreases toward cold habitats as predicted by the ‘altitude niche‐breadth hypothesis’ to forecast possible consequences of interaction rewiring under climate change. We used a non‐invasive, standardized metabarcoding approach to reconstruct dietary relationships of Orthoptera species as a major insect herbivore taxon along a broad temperature gradient (~12°C) in Southern Germany. Based on Orthoptera surveys, feeding observations, collection of fecal pellets from >3,000 individuals of 54 species, and parallel vegetation surveys on 41 grassland sites, we quantified plant resource availability and its use by herbivores. Herbivore assemblages were richer in species and individuals at sites with high summer temperatures, while plant richness peaked at intermediate temperatures. Corresponding interaction networks were most specialized in warm habitats. Considering phylogenetic relationships of plant resources, however, the specialization pattern was not linear but peaked at intermediate temperatures, mediated by herbivores feeding on a narrow range of phylogenetically related resources. Our study provides empirical evidence of resource specialization of insect herbivores along a climatic gradient, demonstrating that resource phylogeny, availability, and temperature interactively shape the specialization of herbivore assemblages. Instead of low specialization levels only in cold, harsh habitats, our results suggest increased generalist feeding due to intraspecific changes and compositional differences at both ends of the microclimatic gradient. We conclude that this nonlinear change of phylogeny‐based resource specialization questions predictions derived from the ‘altitude‐niche breadth hypothesis’ and highlights the currently limited understanding of how plant‐herbivore interactions will change under future climatic conditions.
The goal of the project VascuBone is to develop a tool box for bone regeneration, which on one hand fulfills basic requirements (e.g. biocompatibility, properties of the surface, strength of the biomaterials) and on the other hand is freely combinable with what is needed in the respective patient's situation. The tool box will include a variation of biocompatible biomaterials and cell types, FDA-approved growth factors, material modification technologies, simulation and analytical tools like molecular imaging-based in vivo diagnostics, which can be combined for the specific medical need. This tool box will be used to develop translational approaches for regenerative therapies of different types of bone defects. This project receives funding from the European Union's Seventh Framework Program (VascuBone 2010).
The present study is embedded into this EU project. The intention of this study is to assess the changes of the global gene expression patterns of endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) after direct cell-cell contact as well as the influence of conditioned medium gained from MSCs on EPCs and vice versa. EPCs play an important role in postnatal vasculogenesis. An intact blood vessel system is crucial for all tissues, including bone. Latest findings in the field of bone fracture healing and repair by the use of tissue engineering constructs seeded with MSCs raised the idea of combining MSCs and EPCs to enhance vascularization and therefore support survival of the newly built bone tissue. RNA samples from both experimental set ups were hybridized on Affymetrix GeneChips® HG-U133 Plus 2.0 and analyzed by microarray technology. Bioinformatic analysis was applied to the microarray data and verified by RT-PCR.
This study gives detailed information on how EPCs and MSCs communicate with each other and therefore gives insights into the signaling pathways of the musculoskeletal system. These insights will be the base for further functional studies on protein level for the purpose of tissue regeneration. A better understanding of the cell communication of MSCs and EPCs and subsequently the targeting of relevant factors opens a variety of new opportunities, especially in the field of tissue engineering.
The second part of the present work was to develop an ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) for a target protein from the lists of differentially expressed genes revealed by the microarray analysis. This project was in cooperation with Immundiagnostik AG, Bensheim, Germany. The development of the ELISA aimed to have an in vitro diagnostic tool to monitor e.g. the quality of cell seeded tissue engineering constructs. The target protein chosen from the lists was klotho. Klotho seemed to be a very promising candidate since it is described in the literature as anti-aging protein. Furthermore, studies with klotho knock-out mice showed that these animals suffered from several age-related diseases e.g. osteoporosis and atherosclerosis. As a co-receptor for FGF23, klotho plays an important role in bone metabolism. The present study will be the first one to show that klotho is up-regulated in EPCs after direct cell-cell contact with MSCs. The development of an assay with a high sensitivity on one hand and the capacity to differentiate between secreted and shedded klotho on the other hand will allow further functional studies of this protein and offers a new opportunity in medical diagnostics especially in the field of metabolic bone disease.
Physiological Notch Signaling Maintains Bone Homeostasis via RBPjk and Hey Upstream of NFATc1
(2012)
Notch signaling between neighboring cells controls many cell fate decisions in metazoans both during embryogenesis and in postnatal life. Previously, we uncovered a critical role for physiological Notch signaling in suppressing osteoblast differentiation in vivo. However, the contribution of individual Notch receptors and the downstream signaling mechanism have not been elucidated. Here we report that removal of Notch2, but not Notch1, from the embryonic limb mesenchyme markedly increased trabecular bone mass in adolescent mice. Deletion of the transcription factor RBPjk, a mediator of all canonical Notch signaling, in the mesenchymal progenitors but not the more mature osteoblast-lineage cells, caused a dramatic high-bone-mass phenotype characterized by increased osteoblast numbers, diminished bone marrow mesenchymal progenitor pool, and rapid age-dependent bone loss. Moreover, mice deficient in Hey1 and HeyL, two target genes of Notch-RBPjk signaling, exhibited high bone mass. Interestingly, Hey1 bound to and suppressed the NFATc1 promoter, and RBPjk deletion increased NFATc1 expression in bone. Finally, pharmacological inhibition of NFAT alleviated the high-bone-mass phenotype caused by RBPjk deletion. Thus, Notch-RBPjk signaling functions in part through Hey1-mediated inhibition of NFATc1 to suppress osteoblastogenesis, contributing to bone homeostasis in vivo.
Physiological responses of date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) seedlings to seawater and flooding
(2021)
In their natural environment along coast lines, date palms are exposed to seawater inundation and, hence, combined stress by salinity and flooding.
To elucidate the consequences of this combined stress on foliar gas exchange and metabolite abundances in leaves and roots, date palm seedlings were exposed to flooding with seawater and its major constituents under controlled conditions.
Seawater flooding significantly reduced CO\(_{2}\) assimilation, transpiration and stomatal conductance, but did not affect isoprene emission. A similar effect was observed upon NaCl exposure. By contrast, flooding with distilled water or MgSO\(_{4}\) did not affect CO\(_{2}\)/H\(_{2}\)O gas exchange or stomatal conductance significantly, indicating that neither flooding itself, nor seawater sulfate, contributed greatly to stomatal closure. Seawater exposure increased Na and Cl contents in leaves and roots, but did not affect sulfate contents significantly. Metabolite analyses revealed reduced abundances of foliar compatible solutes, such as sugars and sugar alcohols, whereas nitrogen compounds accumulated in roots.
Reduced transpiration upon seawater exposure may contribute to controlling the movement of toxic ions to leaves and, therefore, can be seen as a mechanism to cope with salinity. The present results indicate that date palm seedlings are tolerant towards seawater exposure to some extent, and highly tolerant to flooding.
Many pathogenic bacteria cause local infections but occasionally invade into the blood stream, often with fatal outcome. Very little is known about the mechanism underlying the switch from local to invasive infection. In the case of Neisseria gonorrhoeae, phase variable type 4 pili (T4P) stabilize local infection by mediating microcolony formation and inducing anti-invasive signals. Outer membrane porin PorBIA, in contrast, is associated with disseminated infection and facilitates the efficient invasion of gonococci into host cells. Here we demonstrate that loss of pili by natural pilus phase variation is a prerequisite for the transition from local to invasive infection. Unexpectedly, both T4P-mediated inhibition of invasion and PorBIA-triggered invasion utilize membrane rafts and signaling pathways that depend on caveolin-1-Y14 phosphorylation (Cav1-pY14). We identified p85 regulatory subunit of PI3 kinase (PI3K) and phospholipase Cγ1 as new, exclusive and essential interaction partners for Cav1-pY14 in the course of PorBIA-induced invasion. Active PI3K induces the uptake of gonococci via a new invasion pathway involving protein kinase D1. Our data describe a novel route of bacterial entry into epithelial cells and offer the first mechanistic insight into the switch from local to invasive gonococcal infection.
A recent study by Peng and Yang in Scientific Reports using confocal-microscopy based automated quantification of anti-synapsin labeled microglomeruli in the mushroom bodies of honeybee brains reports potentially incorrect numbers of microglomerular densities. Whereas several previous studies using visually supervised or automated counts from confocal images and analyses of serial 3D electron-microscopy data reported consistent numbers of synaptic complexes per volume, Peng and Yang revealed extremely low numbers differing by a factor of 18 or more from those obtained in visually supervised counts, and by a factor 22–180 from numbers in two other studies using automated counts. This extreme discrepancy is especially disturbing as close comparison of raw confocal images of anti-synapsin labeled whole-mount brain preparations are highly similar across these studies. We conclude that these discrepancies may reside in potential misapplication of confocal imaging followed by erroneous use of automated image analysis software. Consequently, the reported microglomerular densities during maturation and after manipulation by insecticides require validation by application of appropriate confocal imaging methods and analyses tools that rely on skilled observers. We suggest several improvements towards more reliable or standardized automated or semi-automated synapse counts in whole mount preparations of insect brains.
Background
Phytoplankton communities are often used as a marker for the determination of fresh water quality. The routine analysis, however, is very time consuming and expensive as it is carried out manually by trained personnel. The goal of this work is to develop a system for an automated analysis.
Results
A novel open source system for the automated recognition of phytoplankton by the use of microscopy and image analysis was developed. It integrates the segmentation of the organisms from the background, the calculation of a large range of features, and a neural network for the classification of imaged organisms into different groups of plankton taxa. The analysis of samples containing 10 different taxa showed an average recognition rate of 94.7% and an average error rate of 5.5%. The presented system has a flexible framework which easily allows expanding it to include additional taxa in the future.
Conclusions
The implemented automated microscopy and the new open source image analysis system - PlanktoVision - showed classification results that were comparable or better than existing systems and the exclusion of non-plankton particles could be greatly improved. The software package is published as free software and is available to anyone to help make the analysis of water quality more reproducible and cost effective.
Exposure of plants to environmental stressors can modify their metabolism, interactions with other organisms and reproductive success. Tropospheric ozone is a source of plant stress. We investigated how an acute exposure to ozone at different times of plant development affects reproductive performance, as well as the flowering patterns and the interactions with pollinators and herbivores, of wild mustard plants. The number of open flowers was higher on plants exposed to ozone at earlier ages than on the respective controls, while plants exposed at later ages showed a tendency for decreased number of open flowers. The changes in the number of flowers provided a good explanation for the ozone-induced effects on reproductive performance and on pollinator visitation. Ozone exposure at earlier ages also led to either earlier or extended flowering periods. Moreover, ozone tended to increase herbivore abundance, with responses depending on herbivore taxa and the plant age at the time of ozone exposure. These results suggest that the effects of ozone exposure depend on the developmental stage of the plant, affecting the flowering patterns in different directions, with consequences for pollination and reproduction of annual crops and wild species.
Higher temperatures can increase metabolic rates and carbon demands of invertebrate herbivores, which may shift leaf-chewing herbivory among plant functional groups differing in C:N (carbon:nitrogen) ratios. Biotic factors influencing herbivore species richness may modulate these temperature effects. Yet, systematic studies comparing leaf-chewing herbivory among plant functional groups in different habitats and landscapes along temperature gradients are lacking. This study was conducted on 80 plots covering large gradients of temperature, plant richness and land use in Bavaria, Germany. We investigated proportional leaf area loss by chewing invertebrates (‘herbivory’) in three plant functional groups on open herbaceous vegetation. As potential drivers, we considered local mean temperature (range 8.4–18.8 °C), multi-annual mean temperature (range 6.5–10.0 °C), local plant richness (species and family level, ranges 10–51 species, 5–25 families), adjacent habitat type (forest, grassland, arable field, settlement), proportion of grassland and landscape diversity (0.2–3 km scale). We observed differential responses of leaf-chewing herbivory among plant functional groups in response to plant richness (family level only) and habitat type, but not to grassland proportion, landscape diversity and temperature—except for multi-annual mean temperature influencing herbivory on grassland plots. Three-way interactions of plant functional group, temperature and predictors of plant richness or land use did not substantially impact herbivory. We conclude that abiotic and biotic factors can assert different effects on leaf-chewing herbivory among plant functional groups. At present, effects of plant richness and habitat type outweigh effects of temperature and landscape-scale land use on herbivory among legumes, forbs and grasses.
Plant traits mediate the effects of climate on phytophagous beetle diversity on Mt. Kilimanjaro
(2021)
Patterns of insect diversity along elevational gradients are well described in ecology. However, it remains little tested how variation in the quantity, quality, and diversity of food resources influence these patterns. Here we analyzed the direct and indirect effects of climate, food quantity (estimated by net primary productivity), quality (variation in the specific leaf area index, leaf nitrogen to phosphorus and leaf carbon to nitrogen ratio), and food diversity (diversity of leaf traits) on the species richness of phytophagous beetles along the broad elevation and land use gradients of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. We sampled beetles at 65 study sites located in both natural and anthropogenic habitats, ranging from 866 to 4,550 m asl. We used path analysis to unravel the direct and indirect effects of predictor variables on species richness. In total, 3,154 phytophagous beetles representing 19 families and 304 morphospecies were collected. We found that the species richness of phytophagous beetles was bimodally distributed along the elevation gradient with peaks at the lowest (˜866 m asl) and upper mid-elevations (˜3,200 m asl) and sharply declined at higher elevations. Path analysis revealed temperature- and climate-driven changes in primary productivity and leaf trait diversity to be the best predictors of changes in the species richness of phytophagous beetles. Species richness increased with increases in mean annual temperature, primary productivity, and with increases in the diversity of leaf traits of local ecosystems. Our study demonstrates that, apart from temperature, the quantity and diversity of food resources play a major role in shaping diversity gradients of phytophagous insects. Drivers of global change, leading to a change of leaf traits and causing reductions in plant diversity and productivity, may consequently reduce the diversity of herbivore assemblages.
Abiotic stress by elevated tropospheric ozone and temperature can alter plants’ metabolism, growth, and nutritional value and modify the life cycle of their herbivores. We investigated how the duration of exposure of Sinapis arvensis plants to high ozone and temperature levels affect the life cycle of the large cabbage white, Pieris brassicae. Plants were exposed to ozone-clean (control) or ozone-enriched conditions (120 ppb) for either 1 or 5 days and were afterwards kept in a greenhouse with variable temperature conditions. When given the choice, P. brassicae butterflies laid 49% fewer eggs on ozone-exposed than on control plants when the exposure lasted for 5 days, but showed no preference when exposure lasted for 1 day. The caterpillars took longer to hatch on ozone-exposed plants and at lower ambient temperatures. The ozone treatment had a positive effect on the survival of the eggs. Ozone decreased the growth of caterpillars reared at higher temperatures on plants exposed for 5 days, but not on plants exposed for 1 day. Overall, longer exposure of the plants to ozone and higher temperatures affected the life cycle of the herbivore more strongly. With global warming, the indirect impacts of ozone on herbivores are likely to become more common.
West African savannas are severely threatened with intensified land use and increasing degradation. Bees are important for terrestrial biodiversity as they provide native plant species with pollination services. However, little information is available regarding their mutualistic interactions with woody plant species. In the first network study from sub-Saharan West Africa, we investigated the effects of land-use intensity and climatic seasonality on plant–bee communities and their interaction networks. In total, we recorded 5686 interactions between 53 flowering woody plant species and 100 bee species. Bee-species richness and the number of interactions were higher in the low compared to medium and high land-use intensity sites. Bee- and plant-species richness and the number of interactions were higher in the dry compared to the rainy season. Plant–bee visitation networks were not strongly affected by land-use intensity; however, climatic seasonality had a strong effect on network architecture. Null-model corrected connectance and nestedness were higher in the dry compared to the rainy season. In addition, network specialization and null-model corrected modularity were lower in the dry compared to the rainy season. Our results suggest that in our study region, seasonal effects on mutualistic network architecture are more pronounced compared to land-use change effects. Nonetheless, the decrease in bee-species richness and the number of plant–bee interactions with an increase in land-use intensity highlights the importance of savanna conservation for maintaining bee diversity and the concomitant provision of ecosystem services.
Olfactory circuits change structurally and physiologically during development and adult life. This allows insects to respond to olfactory cues in an appropriate and adaptive way according to their physiological and behavioral state, and to adapt to their specific abiotic and biotic natural environment. We highlight here findings on olfactory plasticity and modulation in various model and non-model insects with an emphasis on moths and social Hymenoptera. Different categories of plasticity occur in the olfactory systems of insects. One type relates to the reproductive or feeding state, as well as to adult age. Another type of plasticity is context-dependent and includes influences of the immediate sensory and abiotic environment, but also environmental conditions during postembryonic development, periods of adult behavioral maturation, and short- and long-term sensory experience. Finally, plasticity in olfactory circuits is linked to associative learning and memory formation. The vast majority of the available literature summarized here deals with plasticity in primary and secondary olfactory brain centers, but also peripheral modulation is treated. The described molecular, physiological, and structural neuronal changes occur under the influence of neuromodulators such as biogenic amines, neuropeptides, and hormones, but the mechanisms through which they act are only beginning to be analyzed.
Daily activities within an ant colony need precise temporal organization, and an endogenous clock appears to be essential for such timing processes. A clock drives locomotor rhythms in isolated workers in a number of ant species, but its involvement in activities displayed in the social context is unknown. We compared locomotor rhythms in isolated individuals and behavioral rhythms in the social context of workers of the ant Camponotus rufipes. Both forager and nurse workers exhibited circadian rhythms in locomotor activity under constant conditions, indicating the involvement of an endogenous clock. Activity was mostly nocturnal and synchronized with the 12:12h light-dark-cycle. To evaluate whether rhythmicity was maintained in the social context and could be synchronized with non-photic zeitgebers such as feeding times, daily behavioral activities of single workers inside and outside the nest were quantified continuously over 24 hours in 1656 hours of video recordings. Food availability was limited to a short time window either at day or at night, thus mimicking natural conditions of temporally restricted food access. Most foragers showed circadian foraging behavior synchronized with food availability, either at day or nighttime. When isolated thereafter in single locomotor activity monitors, foragers mainly displayed arrhythmicity. Here, high mortality suggested potential stressful effects of the former restriction of food availability. In contrast, nurse workers showed high overall activity levels in the social context and performed their tasks all around the clock with no circadian pattern, likely to meet the needs of the brood. In isolation, the same individuals exhibited in turn strong rhythmic activity and nocturnality. Thus, endogenous activity rhythms were inhibited in the social context, and timing of daily behaviors was flexibly adapted to cope with task demands. As a similar socially-mediated plasticity in circadian rhythms was already shown in honey bees, the temporal organization in C. rufipes and honey bees appear to share similar basic features.
Background
Squalius alburnoides is an Iberian cyprinid fish resulting from an interspecific hybridisation between Squalius pyrenaicus females (P genome) and males of an unknown Anaecypris hispanica- like species (A genome). S. alburnoides is an allopolyploid hybridogenetic complex, which makes it a likely candidate for ploidy mosaicism occurrence, and is also an interesting model to address questions about gene expression regulation and genomic interactions. Indeed, it was previously suggested that in S. alburnoides triploids (PAA composition) silencing of one of the three alleles (mainly of the P allele) occurs. However, not a whole haplome is inactivated but a more or less random inactivation of alleles varying between individuals and even between organs of the same fish was seen.
In this work we intended to correlate expression differences between individuals and/or between organs to the occurrence of mosaicism, evaluating if mosaics could explain previous observations and its impact on the assessment of gene expression patterns.
Results
To achieve our goal, we developed flow cytometry and cell sorting protocols for this system generating more homogenous cellular and transcriptional samples. With this set-up we detected 10% ploidy mosaicism within the S. alburnoides complex, and determined the allelic expression profiles of ubiquitously expressed genes (rpl8; gapdh and β-actin) in cells from liver and kidney of mosaic and non-mosaic individuals coming from different rivers over a wide geographic range.
Conclusions
Ploidy mosaicism occurs sporadically within the S. alburnoides complex, but in a frequency significantly higher than reported for other organisms. Moreover, we could exclude the influence of this phenomenon on the detection of variable allelic expression profiles of ubiquitously expressed genes (rpl8; gapdh and β-actin) in cells from liver and kidney of triploid individuals. Finally, we determined that the expression patterns previously detected only in a narrow geographic range is not a local restricted phenomenon but is pervasive in rivers where S. pyrenaicus is sympatric with S. alburnoides.
We discuss mechanisms that could lead to the formation of mosaic S. alburnoides and hypothesise about a relaxation of the mechanisms that impose a tight control over mitosis and ploidy control in mixoploids."
Chapter I – Introduction
Global trade of beans of the cacao tree (Theobroma cacao), of which chocolate is produced, contributes to the livelihoods of millions of smallholder farmers. The understorey tree is native to South America but is nowadays cultivated in many tropical regions. In Peru, a South American country with a particularly high cacao diversity, it is common to find the tree cultivated alongside non-crop trees that provide shade, in so-called agroforestry systems. Because of the small scale and low management intensity of such systems, agroforestry is one of the most wildlife-friendly land-use types, harbouring the potential for species conservation. Studying wildlife-friendly land-use is of special importance for species conservation in biodiversity-rich tropical regions such as Peru, where agricultural expansion and intensification are threatening biodiversity. Moreover, there is a growing body of evidence that shows co-occurrence of high biodiversity levels and high yield in wildlife-friendly cacao farming. Yet studies are restricted to non-native cacao countries, and since patterns might be different among continents, it is important to improve knowledge on wildlife-friendly agroforestry in native countries.
Because studies of wildlife-friendly cultivation processes are still largely lacking for South America, we set out to study multiple aspects of cacao productivity in agroforests in Peru, part of cacao´s region of origin. The natural pollination process of cacao, which is critically understudied, was investigated by trapping flower visitors and studying pollen deposition from macrophotographs (Chapter II). Next, we excluded birds, bats, ants and flying insects and squirrels from cacao trees in a full-factorial field experiment and quantified these animals´ contribution to cacao fruit set, fruit loss and yield (Chapter III). Lastly, we aimed to assess whether fruit quantity and quality of native cacao increases through manually supplementing pollen (Chapter II and IV), and whether microclimatic conditions and the genetic background of the studied varieties limit fruit set (Chapter IV).
Chapter II – Cacao flower visitation: Low pollen deposition, low fruit set and dominance of herbivores
Given the importance of cacao pollination for the global chocolate production, it is remarkable that fruit set limitations are still understudied. Knowledge on flower visitation and the effect of landscape context and local management are lacking, especially in the crop’s region of origin. Moreover, the role of pollen deposition in limiting fruit set as well as the benefits of hand pollination in native cacao are unknown. In this chapter, we aimed to close the current knowledge gaps on cacao pollination biology and sampled flower visitors in 20 Peruvian agroforests with native cacao, along gradients of shade cover and forest distance. We also assessed pollen quantities and compared fruit set between manually and naturally pollinated flowers. We found that herbivores were the most abundant flower visitors in both northern and southern Peru, but we could not conclude which insects are effective cacao pollinators. Fruit set was remarkably low (2%) but improved to 7% due to pollen supplementation. Other factors such as a lack of effective pollinators, genetic pollen incompatibility or resource unavailability could be causing fruit set limitations. We conclude that revealing those causes and the effective pollinators of cacao will be key to improve pollination services in cacao.
Chapter III – Quantifying services and disservices provided by insects and vertebrates in cacao agroforestry landscapes
Pollination and pest control, two ecosystem services that support cacao yield, are provided by insects and vertebrates. However, animals also generate disservices, and their combined contribution is still unclear. Therefore, we excluded flying insects, ants, birds and bats, and as a side effect also squirrels from cacao trees and we assessed fruit set, fruit loss and final yield. Local management and landscape context can influence animal occurrence in cacao agroforestry landscapes; therefore, shade cover and forest distance were included in the analyses. Flying insects benefitted cacao fruit set, with largest gains in agroforests with intermediate shade cover. Birds and bats were also associated with improved fruit set rates and with a 114% increase in yield, potentially due to pest control services provided by these animals. The role of ants was complicated: these insects had a positive effect on yield, but only close to forest. We also evidenced disservices generated by ants and squirrels, causing 7% and 10% of harvest loss, respectively. Even though the benefits provided by animals outweighed the disservices, trade-offs between services and disservices still should be integrated in cacao agroforestry management.
Chapter IV – Cross-pollination improves fruit set and yield quality of Peruvian native cacao
Because yields of the cacao tree are restricted by pollination, hand pollination has been proposed to improve yield quantity and potentially, also quality. However, low self- and cross-compatibility of native cacao, and abiotic conditions could cancel out hand pollination benefits. Yet, the impact of genetic constraints and abiotic conditions on fruit set have not been assessed in native cacao so far. To increase our understanding of the factors that limit fruit set in native cacao, we compared manual self- and cross-pollination with five native genotypes selected for their sensorial quality and simultaneously tested for effects of soil water content, temperature, and relative air humidity. We also compared quality traits between manually and naturally pollinated fruits. Success rates of self-pollination were low (0.5%), but increased three- to eightfold due to cross-pollination, depending on the genotype of the pollen donor. Fruit set was also affected by the interaction between relative air humidity and temperature, and we found heavier and more premium seeds in fruits resulting from manual than natural pollination. Together, these findings show that reproductive traits of native cacao are constrained by genetic compatibility and abiotic conditions. We argue that because of the high costs of hand pollination, natural cross-pollination with native pollen donors should be promoted so that quality improvements can result in optimal economic gains for smallholder farmers.
Chapter V – Discussion
In this thesis, we demonstrated that the presence of flying insects, ants and vertebrates, local and landscape management practices, and pollen supplementation interactively affected cacao yield, at different stages of the development from flower to fruit. First, we showed that fruit set improved by intermediate shade levels and flower visitation by flying insects. Because the effective cacao pollinators remain unknown, we recommend shade cover management to safeguard fruit set rates. The importance of integrating trade-offs in wildlife-friendly management was highlighted by lower harvest losses due to ants and squirrels than the yield benefits provided by birds and bats. The maintenance of forest in the landscape might further promote occurrence of beneficial animals, because in proximity to forest, ants were positively associated with cacao yields. Therefore, an integrated wildlife-friendly farming approach in which shade cover is managed and forest is maintained or restored to optimize ecosystem service provision, while minimizing fruit loss, might benefit yields of native cacao. Finally, manual cross-pollination with native genotypes could be recommended, due to improved yield quantity and quality. However, large costs associated with hand pollination might cancel out these benefits. Instead, we argue that in an integrated management, natural cross-pollination should be promoted by employing compatible genotypes in order to improve yield quantity and quality of native cacao.
1. Pollination of sexually reproducing plants requires pollen transfer agents, which can be biotic, abiotic or a combination of biotic and abiotic agents. The dominance of one of pollination system in wild plant communities depends on climatic factors and/or degrees of anthropogenic influences, which have effects on pollinator diversity and pollination function. Anthropogenic activities and climate change are also considered as main causes of ongoing invasion of invasive species into wild and managed habitats which can bring up competition for pollinators with possible negative consequences for the reproduction of co-occurring native plant species.
2. The study aimed to determine pollination systems and pollination limitation of invasive and native plant communities in natural savannah between 870 – 1130 m and semi-natural (managed) grassland between 1300 – 1750 m above sea level; effects of flower density and pollinator abundance on seed production of cross-pollinated and self-pollinated plants; and relationships of bee abundance and the proportion of cross- pollinated plants at the southern slope of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania.
3. Pollinator-exclusion, open pollination and supplemental hand-pollination treatments were applied to 27 plant species in savannah and grassland habitats. Flowers were counted in each clusters based upon their species. Pollinators were sampled by using pan traps. Information-theory-based multi-model averaging and generalized linear mixed effects models were used to identify and analyze the effects of flower density, pollinator abundance, pollination treatments and habitat types on seed production. Regression models were used to determine relationships of altitude with bee abundance, and with proportion of cross-pollinated plants.
4. My results show that mean seed numbers of native plants were significantly lower in pollinator-exclusion treatments than in open-pollination treatments, indicating their reliance on pollinators for reproductive success. In contrast, seed numbers of invasive plants were similar in pollinator-exclusion and open-pollination treatments, demonstrating an ability of reproduction without pollinators. Despite of higher levels of self-pollination in invasive plants, supplemental hand-pollination treatments revealed pollen limitation in grassland and marginally in savannah habitats. There were no significant difference in seed numbers between supplemental hand pollination and open pollination treatments of native plant communities in savannah and grassland, which indicates no pollination limitation in the studied ecological system for native communities. Besides, grassland plants produced comparatively more seeds than savannah plants, however seeds in grasslands were lighter than those of the savannah which may be due to nutrient limitation in grassland.
5. I found 12 cross-pollinated and 15 self-pollinated plants along altitudinal gradient after comparing seeds from pollinator-excluded and open-pollinated experiments. I also found that proportions of cross-pollinated plants and bee abundance simultaneously decreased with increasing altitude. All cross-pollinated plants were native and grew in savannah habitats, with an exception of one species.
6. Neither effects of focal flower density nor a significant interaction between focal flower densities and bee abundance for self-pollinated plants were observed. However, there were effects of focal flower densities and interactions of flower density with bee abundance for cross-pollinated plants. Non-focal flower density has no significant effects on seed production of cross-pollinated and self-pollinated plants.
7. The results show that native plants depend more on cross-pollination than invasive plants, despite of most native plants in managed habitat (grassland) rely on self-pollination for reproduction. The tendency of having more cross-pollinated plants in natural savannah which are in low altitude coincides with other finding that the cross-pollinated plants and bee abundance simultaneously decrease with increasing altitude. Therefore, our findings support the hypotheses that self-fertilization of flowering plants increases with increasing altitude, and pollinator limitation is most pronounced in managed or disturbed habitats. Despite of reduction of pollinators in grassland, only invasive plants experience pollen limitation, which may be due to poor integration with available pollinator networks.
8. I also found bee abundance and flower density are not the main pollination factors required by self-pollinated plants during reproduction. However, focal flower density, which influences pollinator diversity, is more applicable to cross-pollinated plants. Climate change and anthropogenic activities in natural habitats are factors that influence pollinator abundance and functioning, which lead to a shift of mating systems in plant communities so as to assure their reproduction.
Avocado (Persea americana Mill.) is a major horticultural crop that relies on insect mediated pollination. In avocado production, a knowledge gap exists as to the importance of insect pollination, especially in East African smallholder farms. Although it is evident that pollination improves the yield of avocado fruits, it is still unclear if pollination has benefits on fruit quality and the nutritional profile, particularly oils. Prior studies have shown that honey bees increase avocado’s fruit set and yield. However, an avocado flower is being visited by various insect species. Therefore, determining pollination efficiency will allow a comparison of the relative importance of the different insect species to optimize crop pollination for increased fruit set and crop yield and pollinator conservation. This study was conducted in a leading smallholder avocado production region in Kenya, first I assessed the dependence of avocado fruit set on insect pollination and whether current smallholder production systems suffer from a deficit in pollination services. Furthermore, I assessed if supplementation with colonies of the Western honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) to farms mitigated potential pollination deficits. The results revealed a very high reliance of avocado on insect pollinators, with a significantly lower fruit set observed for self- and wind-pollinated (17.4%) or self-pollinated flowers (6.4%) in comparison with insect-pollinated flowers (89.5%). I found a significant pollination deficit across farms, with hand-pollinated flowers on average producing 20.7% more fruits than non-treated open flowers prior to fruit abortion. This pollination deficit could be compensated by the supplementation of farms with A. mellifera colonies. These findings suggest that pollination is limiting fruit set in avocado and that A. mellifera supplementation on farms is a potential option to increase fruit yield. Secondly, I investigated the contribution of insect pollination to fruit and seed weight, oil, protein, carbohydrate, and phytochemicals contents (flavonoids and phenolics), and whether supplementation with pollinators (honey bee) could improve these fruit parameters was assessed. This was through pollinator-manipulative pollination treatments: hand, open, pollinator exclusion experiments. The results showed that avocado fruit weight was significantly higher in open and hand-pollinated than pollinator exclusion treatments, indicating that flower visitors/pollinators contribute to avocado yields and enhance marketability. Furthermore, insect pollination resulted in heavier seeds and higher oil contents, indicating that insect pollination is beneficial for the fruit’s high seed yield and quantity of oil. Honey bee supplementation also enhanced the avocado fruit weight by 18% more than in control farms and slightly increased the avocado oil content (3.6%). Contrarily, insect pollination did not influence other assayed fruit quality parameters (protein, carbohydrates, and phytochemicals). These results indicate that insect pollinators are essential for optimizing avocado yields, nutritional quality (oils), and thus marketability, underscoring the value of beehive supplementation to achieve high-quality avocado fruits and improved food security. Thirdly, pollinator efficiency based on pollen deposition after single visits by different pollinator species in avocado flowers was tested, and their frequency was recorded. The estimated pollination efficiency was highest in honey bees (Apis mellifera), followed by the hoverfly species (Phytomia incisa). These two species had the highest pollen deposition and more pollen grains on their bodies. In addition, honey bees were the most frequent avocado flower visitors, followed by flies. The findings from this study highlight the higher pollination efficiency of honey bees and Phytomia incisa. Hence, management practices supporting these species will promote increased avocado fruit yield. Additionally, these results imply that managed honey bees can be maintained to improve avocado pollination, particularly in areas lacking sufficient wild pollinators.
Eukaryotic cells have several mRNA quality control checkpoints to avoid the production of aberrant proteins. Intron-containing mRNAs are actively degraded by the nuclear exosome, prevented from nuclear exit and, if these systems fail, degraded by the cytoplasmic NMD machinery. Trypanosomes have only two introns. However, they process mRNA5 from long polycistronic precursors by trans-splicing and polycistronic mRNA molecules frequently arise from any missed splice site. Here, we show that RNAi depletion of the trypanosome exosome, but not of the cytoplasmic 5'-3' exoribonuclease XRNA or the NMD helicase UPF1, causes accumulation of oligocistronic mRNA5. We have also revisited the localization of the trypanosome exosome by expressing eYFP-fusion proteins of the exosome subunits RRP44 and RRP6. Both proteins are significantly enriched in the nucleus. Together with published data, our data suggest a major nuclear function of the trypanosome exosome in rRNA, snoRNA and mRNA quality control.
European honeybee populations are considered to consist only of managed colonies, but recent censuses have revealed that wild/feral colonies still occur in various countries. To gauge the ecological and evolutionary relevance of wild-living honeybees, information is needed on their population demography. We monitored feral honeybee colonies in German forests for up to 4 years through regular inspections of woodpecker cavity trees and microsatellite genotyping. Each summer, about 10% of the trees were occupied, corresponding to average densities of 0.23 feral colonies km\(^{−2}\) (an estimated 5% of the regional honeybee populations). Populations decreased moderately until autumn but dropped massively during winter, so that their densities were only about 0.02 colonies km\(^{−2}\) in early spring. During the reproductive (swarming) season, in May and June, populations recovered, with new swarms preferring nest sites that had been occupied in the previous year. The annual survival rate and the estimated lifespan of feral colonies (n = 112) were 10.6% and 0.6 years, respectively. We conclude that managed forests in Germany do not harbour self-sustaining feral honeybee populations, but they are recolonized every year by swarms escaping from apiaries.
We observed substantial differences in predicted Major Histocompatibility Complex II (MHCII) epitope presentation of SARS-CoV-2 proteins for different populations but only minor differences in predicted MHCI epitope presentation. A comparison of this predicted epitope MHC-coverage revealed for the early phase of infection spread (till day 15 after reaching 128 observed infection cases) highly significant negative correlations with the case fatality rate. Specifically, this was observed in different populations for MHC class II presentation of the viral spike protein (p-value: 0.0733 for linear regression), the envelope protein (p-value: 0.023), and the membrane protein (p-value: 0.00053), indicating that the high case fatality rates of COVID-19 observed in some countries seem to be related with poor MHC class II presentation and hence weak adaptive immune response against these viral envelope proteins. Our results highlight the general importance of the SARS-CoV-2 structural proteins in immunological control in early infection spread looking at a global census in various countries and taking case fatality rate into account. Other factors such as health system and control measures become more important after the early spread. Our study should encourage further studies on MHCII alleles as potential risk factors in COVID-19 including assessment of local populations and specific allele distributions.
All physiological processes of ectotherms depend on environmental temperature. Thus, adaptation of physiological mechanisms to the thermal environments is important for achieving optimal performance and fitness. The European Common Frog, Rana temporaria, is widely distributed across different thermal habitats. This makes it an exceptional model for studying the adaptations to different thermal conditions. We raised tadpoles from Germany and Croatia at two constant temperature treatments (15°C, 20°C), and under natural temperature fluctuations (in outdoor treatments), and tested how different developmental temperatures affected developmental traits, that is, length of larval development, morphometrics, and body condition, as well as jumping performance of metamorphs. Our results revealed population‐specific differences in developmental time, body condition, and jumping performance. Croatian frogs developed faster in all treatments, were heavier, in better body condition, and had longer hind limbs and better jumping abilities than German metamorphs. The populations further differed in thermal sensitivity of jumping performance. While metamorphs from Croatia increased their jumping performance with higher temperatures, German metamorphs reached their performance maximum at lower temperatures. These population‐specific differences in common environments indicate local genetic adaptation, with southern populations being better adapted to higher temperatures than those from north of the Alps.
Die Dissertation beschreibt die Positionsklonierung von VMD2, einem Krankheitsgen des Menschen, dass der dominant vererbten vitelliformen Makuladystrophie Typ 2 (VMD2) zugrundeliegt. Zu diesem Zweck wurde zunächst ein etwa 1.4 Mbp großer Klon-'Contig' aus artifiziellen Phagenchromosomen ('phage artificial chromosomes', PAC) erstellt, der die VMD2-Kandidatengenregion auf Chromosom 11q12-q13.1 physikalisch repräsentiert. Durch die Identifizierung polymorpher (CA)n-Dinukleotidmarker aus dem kritschen Intervall und anschließender Kopplungsanalyse gelang es, die Kandidatengenregion auf ca. 500 kbp zu reduzieren. In der öffentlichen Datenbank (GenBank) bereitgestellte Nukleinsäuresequenzen zweier genomischer Klone aus dem Kern des relevanten chromosomalen Bereichs von zusammen etwa 290 kbp wurden dazu genutzt, über eine Kombination aus computergestützter Vorhersagen kodierender Sequenzen, Kartierung von EST-Klonen ('expressed sequence tags'), RT-PCR-Analysen und, wenn erforderlich, 5'-RACE-Experimenten, acht neue Gene des Menschen zu isolieren. Von den charakterisierten Genen erwiesen sich mehrere als potentielle Kandidaten für VMD2. Ein Gen, provisorisch als Transkriptionseinheit TU15B bezeichnet, konnte durch eine Mutationsanalyse schließlich eindeutig mit der Erkrankung assoziiert werden und wurde 1998 als VMD2 publiziert. Drei Gene aus der untersuchten Region kodieren Mitglieder einer Familie von Fettsäuredesaturasen (FADS1, FADS2 und FADS3), während ein anderes Gen ('Rabin3 interacting protein-like 1'; RAB3IL1) signifikante Sequenzidentität zu einem Transkript der Ratte besitzt, welches das GTPase-interagierende Protein Rabin3 kodiert. Den putativen Translationsprodukten drei weiterer Gene (C11orf9, C11orf10 und C11orf11) konnte bislang keine präzise Funktion zugeschrieben werden. Mit FTH1 ('ferritin heavy chain 1') und FEN1 ('flap endonuclease 1') liegen zudem zwei bekannte Gene im analysierten Intervall, deren cDNA-Sequenzen bereits 1984 bzw. 1995 von anderen Forschungsgruppen isoliert und publiziert wurden. Zweifellos kann die Region als sehr genreicher Abschnitt des menschlichen Genoms bezeichnet werden. Neben der Erstellung des PAC-'Contigs', der Einengung der VMD2-Kandidatenregion und der Klonierung von VMD2 war die vollständige genetische Charakterisierung der genannten Fettsäuredesaturase-Gene ein weiterer Schwerpunkt der Arbeit. Unabhängig von der Klonierung und Charakterisierung des VMD2-Gens sowie der chromosomal eng benachbarten Gene, richtete sich mein Interesse schließlich noch auf drei Gene des Menschen, provisorisch als TU51, TU52 und TU53 bezeichnet, die gemeinsam mit VMD2 eine Genfamilie bilden und auf den Chromosomen 19p13.2-p13.12 (TU51), 12q14.2-q15 (TU52) und 1p32.3-p33 (TU53) lokalisiert werden konnten. Durch die Aufklärung der kodierenden Nukleinsäuresequenzen der Gene wurden konservierte Sequenzabschnitte innerhalb der Genfamilie erkennbar, die auf wichtige funktionelle Abschnitte der Translationsprodukte schließen lassen.
Post-embryonic Development of the Circadian Clock Seems to Correlate With Social Life Style in Bees
(2020)
Social life style can influence many aspects of an animal’s daily life, but it has not yet been clarified, whether development of the circadian clock in social and solitary living bees differs. In a comparative study, with the social honey bee, Apis mellifera, and the solitary mason bee, Osmia bicornis, we now found indications for a differentially timed clock development in social and solitary bees. Newly emerged solitary bees showed rhythmic locomotion right away and the number of neurons in the brain that produce the clock component pigment-dispersing factor (PDF) did not change during aging of the adult solitary bee. Honey bees on the other hand, showed no circadian locomotion directly after emergence and the neuronal clock network continued to grow after emergence. Social bees appear to emerge at an early developmental stage at which the circadian clock is still immature, but bees are already able to fulfill in-hive tasks.
Die Lamine gehören zu einer Familie von Proteinen, die als strukturelle Hauptelemente die Kernlamina ausbilden, einen wesentlichen Bestandteil der Kernhülle eukaryontischer Zellen. In Säugern exprimieren differenzierte somatische Zellen die Lamine A, C, B1 und B2. Die Kernhülle in Keimzellen unterscheidet sich in Bezug auf Struktur und Proteinzusammensetzung deutlich von der einer somatischen Zelle. So exprimieren Keimzellen Lamin B1 als einziges der somatischen Lamine und zwei kurze keimbahnspezifische Spleißvarianten, die Lamine C2 und B3. Die vorliegende Arbeit enthält eine detaillierte Analyse des Expressionsmusters und der zellulären Verteilung von Lamin B3 im Verlauf der Spermatogenese der Maus. Die Daten aus RT-PCR, Western Blot und Immunfluoreszenz belegen eindeutig, dass Lamin B3 ausschließlich in postmeiotischen Stadien während der Spermiogenese exprimiert wird. In runden Spermatiden konnte das Protein an der Kernhülle und überraschenderweise auch im Nukleoplasma nachgewiesen werden. Im weiteren Verlauf der Spermiogenese kommt es zu einer Umverteilung des Proteins, es konzentriert sich zunehmend am posterioren Pol des Spermatidenkerns. Damit ist die Lamina während der Säuger-Spermiogenese nur aus B-Typ-Laminen aufgebaut und Lamin B3 ist in Säugern das erste Beispiel für ein Lamin, das selektiv nur in postmeiotischen Stadien der Spermatogenese exprimiert wird. Die ektopische Expression von Lamin B3 in Kulturzellen führt zu einer Deformation der Zellkerne, die eine hakenförmige Gestalt annehmen. Mit Hilfe von Transfektionsexperimenten in COS-7-Zellen konnte eindeutig gezeigt werden, dass die auftretenden morphologischen Veränderungen der Kerne transfizierter Zellen auf die trunkierte zentrale Stäbchendomäne in Lamin B3 zurückzuführen ist. Darüber hinaus zeigte das Protein eine stark erhöhte Löslichkeit im Vergleich zu Lamin B2 und die Analyse transfizierter Kulturzellen mit „fluorescence recovery after photobleaching“ (FRAP) und „fluorescence loss in photobleaching“ (FLIP) ergab, dass ein erheblicher Anteil der Lamin-B3-Moleküle eine hohe Mobilität aufweist, die ebenfalls ausschließlich durch die kurze Stäbchendomäne begründet ist. Die Ergebnisse führen zu dem Schluss, dass Lamin B3 die Kernhülle in Keimzellen flexibler macht, was eine Voraussetzung für einige Vorgänge in der Spermiogenese sein könnte. Mit einem Fusionsprotein aus GST und dem 84 Aminosäuren umfassenden N-Terminus von Lamin B3 wurde über einen „Pull-Down-Assay“ nach möglichen Interaktionspartnern in Keimzellen gesucht. Mit MSY2, MSY2a und MSY4 wurden drei hoch interessante Kandidaten identifiziert. Sie gehören zu den Y-Box-Proteinen, DNA- und RNA-bindende Proteine, die bei der Speicherung und späteren Translation von mRNAs beteiligt sind, u.a. die mRNA von Protamin 1 (diese Form der Regulation von Genexpression hat in der Spermatogenese große Bedeutung). Die Interaktion von Lamin B3 mit diesen Proteinen muss noch überprüft werden, würde aber einen weiteren Bezug zwischen Kernhülle und Chromatinreorganisation in der Spermiogenese herstellen, wie es für die Kernhüllenproteine GCL und LBR bereits gezeigt werden konnte. Außerdem wäre es ein erster Hinweis auf eine funktionelle Bedeutung der N-terminalen Domäne von Lamin B3.
Listeria monocytogenes ist ein weit verbreitetes, Gram-positives humanpatho-genes Bakterium, welches in immunsupprimierten Personen das Krankheitsbild der Listeriose auslösen kann. Der Infektionszyklus der Listerien im Wirt ist im Hinblick auf die Pathogenese dieses Erregers intensiv untersucht worden. Die Regulation der verschiedenen beteiligten Virulenzfaktoren unterliegt in L. monocytogenes einer starken Kontrolle, die einerseits durch regulatorische Proteine aber auch durch Umweltfaktoren beeinflusst wird. Die Mechanismen, die auf transkriptionaler wie auch auf translationaler Ebene die Expression verschiedener listerieller Virulenzgene regulieren, wurden kürzlich näher charakterisiert. Es wurden für verschiedene listerielle Virulenzgene Riboswitch-mechanismen zur Expressionskontrolle in Listerien neu beschrieben. Durch Vorarbeiten wurde auch für das inlAB-Operon ein posttranskriptionaler Regu-lationsmechanismus postuliert. Dabei wurde der anaerobe Stoffwechsel der Listerien als möglicher Auslöser für die beobachtete Translationssteigerung des inlA- und inlB-Gens diskutiert. Innerhalb der vorliegenden Arbeit sollte nun weitergehend untersucht werden, in welchem Bereich der Sequenz des inlAB-Operons sich regulatorische Strukturen zur posttranskriptionalen Regulation unter anaeroben Wachstumsbedingungen befinden. Dazu wurden verschiedene Mutanten mit unterschiedlichen Deletionen im inlAB-Operon konstruiert und die Transkription und Translation sowohl des inlA-, als auch des inlB-Gens betrachtet. Eine Deletion im aroA-Gen bewirkt das Wachstum der Bakterien bei anaerobem Stoffwechsel. Diese Deletion wurde in die konstruierten Stämme eingefügt, um die Expression der Gene unter den verschiedenen Wachstumsbedingungen vergleichen zu können. Außerdem wurden verschiedene gus-Reportergen-Fusionsmutanten und Promotor-austauschmutanten konstruiert, um quantitativ aussagekräftigere Daten zu erheben. Die Charakterisierung der Mutanten ließ erkennen, dass keiner der deletierten Bereiche des inlAB-Operons von L. monocytogenes für die beobachtete Translationssteigerung im inlA-Gen bei anaerobem Stoffwechsel verantwortlich zu sein scheint. Das inlB-Gen war innerhalb der hier gezeigten Experimente nicht posttranskriptional reguliert, wie im Vorfeld postuliert. Nach plasmidkodierter Expression verschiedener Bereiche des inlAB-Operons konnte, verglichen mit genomischer Expression, keine Veränderung in der inlA-Expression beobachtet werden. Die mögliche Beteiligung eines potentiellen Regulatorproteins konnte innerhalb dieser Arbeit daher nicht näher eingegrenzt werden. Auch ein Einfluss der regulatorischen Faktoren Hfq und CcpA auf die Expression des InlA Proteins in der L. monocytogenes ΔaroA-Mutante konnte nicht gefunden werden. Es zeigte sich interessanterweise außerdem, dass weitere Virulenzgene wie actA und hly unter den anaeroben Bedingungen ebenfalls eine Translations-steigerung zeigten. Somit stellt sich abschließend die Frage, ob es sich bei der beobachteten Translationssteigerung des inlA-Gens wirklich um einen durch bestimmte Strukturen in der inlAB-mRNA ausgelösten Mechanismus handelt. L. monocytogenes ist als intrazellulär replizierendes, Gram-positives Bakterium interessant für den Einsatz in immun- und tumortherapeutischen Anwendungen. Attenuierte L. monocytogenes-Stämme wurden dazu bereits erfolgreich im Mausmodell als Trägerbakterien für Impfstoffstrategien eingesetzt. Die gezielte Infektion von Geweben ist jedoch aufgrund des wenig ausgeprägten Zelltropismus der Listerien im Wirt bisher ein Problem für einen Einsatz in bakterienbasierten Anwendungen, wie z.B. der Tumor- oder Gentherapie. Innerhalb dieser Arbeit wurden L. monocytogenes-Stämme konstruiert, bei denen chromosomal das für die Integrase codierende Gen gegen das Gen für das Staphylokokken Protein A (SPA) unter der Kontrolle listerieller Promotoren ausgetauscht wurde. Die erfolgreiche Oberflächenlokalisation von Protein A in der Zellwand von Listerien konnte im Western Blot oder in funktionellen Immunfluoreszenzfärbungen in Mikroskop- und FACS-Analysen nachgewiesen werden. Diese Stämme sollen im Cell Targeting zur gezielten Infektion von Geweben eingesetzt werden. Dazu konnten die Bakterien über Herceptin®-HER2/neu-vermittelte Adhäsion an SK-BR-3-Zellen erfolgreich in diese aufgenommen werden und innerhalb dieser replizieren. Die neu konstruierten Listeria-Stämme zeigten im Mausmodell keine Veränderung in ihrer Virulenz verglichen mit nicht-SPA-exprimierenden Stämmen. Die in dieser Arbeit vorgestellte Antikörper-Rezeptor-vermittlelte Aufnahme der Listerien in Zellen stellt einen neuen, bisher nicht beschriebenen Mechanismus dar, der in vielen therapeutischen Anwendungen zur Infektion spezifischer Gewebe durch Listerien genutzt werden kann.
The monitoring of species and functional diversity is of increasing relevance for the development of strategies for the conservation and management of biodiversity. Therefore, reliable estimates of the performance of monitoring techniques across taxa become important. Using a unique dataset, this study investigates the potential of airborne LiDAR-derived variables characterizing vegetation structure as predictors for animal species richness at the southern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro. To disentangle the structural LiDAR information from co-factors related to elevational vegetation zones, LiDAR-based models were compared to the predictive power of elevation models. 17 taxa and 4 feeding guilds were modeled and the standardized study design allowed for a comparison across the assemblages. Results show that most taxa (14) and feeding guilds (3) can be predicted best by elevation with normalized RMSE values but only for three of those taxa and two of those feeding guilds the difference to other models is significant. Generally, modeling performances between different models vary only slightly for each assemblage. For the remaining, structural information at most showed little additional contribution to the performance. In summary, LiDAR observations can be used for animal species prediction. However, the effort and cost of aerial surveys are not always in proportion with the prediction quality, especially when the species distribution follows zonal patterns, and elevation information yields similar results.
No abstract available
Cord blood hematopoietic stem cells (CB-HSCs) are an outstanding source for the treatment of a variety of malignant and non-malignant disorders. However, the low amount of cells collected per donor is often insufficient for treatment of adult patients. In order to make sufficient numbers of CB-HSCs available for adults, expansion is required. Different approaches were described for HSC expansion, however these approaches are impeded by the loss of engrafting potential during ex vivo culture. Little is known about the underlying molecular mechanisms. Epigenetic mechanisms play essential roles in controlling stem cell potential and fate decisions and epigenetic strategies are considered for HSC expansion. Therefore, this study aimed to characterize global and local epigenotypes during the expansion of human CB-CD34+, a well established CB progenitor cell type, to better understand the molecular mechanisms leading to the culture-associated loss of engrafting potential. Human CB-CD34+ cells were cultured using 2 different cytokine cocktails: the STF cocktail containing SCF, TPO, FGF-1 and the STFIA cocktail, which combines STF with Angiopoietin-like 5 (Angptl5) and Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 2 (IGFBP2). The latter expands CB-HSCs ex vivo. Subsequently, the NOD-scid gamma (NSG) mouse model was used to study the engraftment potential of expanded cells. Engraftment potential achieved by fresh CB-CD34+ cells was maintained when CB-CD34+ cells were expanded under STFIA but not under STF conditions. To explore global chromatin changes in freshly isolated and expanded CB-CD34+ cells, levels of the activating H3K4me3 and the repressive H3K27me3 histone marks were determined by chromatin flow cytometry and Western blot analyses. For analysis of genome-wide chromatin changes following ex vivo expansion, transcriptome profiling by microarray and chromatin immunoprecipitation combined with deep sequencing (ChIP-seq) were performed. Additionally, local chromatin transitions were monitored by ChIP analyses on promoter regions of developmental and self-renewal factors. On a global level, freshly isolated CD34+ and CD34- cells differed in H3K4me3 and H3K27me3 levels. After 7 days of expansion, CD34+ and CD34- cells adopted similar levels of active and repressive marks. Expanding the cells without IGFBP2 and Angptl5 led to a higher global H3K27me3 level. ChIP-seq analyses revealed a cytokine cocktail-dependent redistribution of H3K27me3 profiles. Chemical inhibition of the H3K27 methyltransferase EZH2 counteracted the culture-associated loss of NSG engraftment potential. Collectively, the data presented in this study revealed that by adding epigeneticly active compounds in the culture media we observed changes on a chromatin level which counteracted the loss of engraftment potential. H3K27me3 rather than H3K4me3 may be critical to establish a specific engraftment supporting transcriptional program. Furthermore, I identified a critical function for the Polycomb repressive complex 2-component EZH2 in the loss of engraftment potential during the in vitro expansion of HPSCs. Taken together this thesis provides a better molecular understanding of chromatin changes upon expansion of CB-HSPCs and opens up new perspectives for epigenetic ex vivo expansion strategies.
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) exacerbations are a considerable reason for increased morbidity and mortality in patients. Infections with influenza virus (H1N1), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) or nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi) are important triggers of exacerbations. To date, no treatments are available which can stop the progression of COPD. Novel approaches are urgently needed. Pre-clinical models of the disease are crucial for the development of novel therapeutic options.
In order to establish pre-clinical models which mimic aspects of human COPD exacerbations, mice were exposed to cigarette smoke (CS) and additionally infected with H1N1, RSV and/or NTHi. Clinically relevant treatments such as the corticosteroids Fluticasone propionate and Dexamethasone, the phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE-4) inhibitor Roflumilast and the long-acting muscarinic receptor antagonist Tiotropium were tested in the established models. Furthermore, a novel treatment approach using antibodies (Abs) directed against IL-1α, IL-1β or IL-1R1 was examined in the established CS/H1N1 model. Levels of IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-6, KC, TNF-α, RANTES, IL-17, MCP-1, MIP 1α and MIP-1β were measured in lung homogenate. Numbers of total cells, neutrophils and macrophages were assessed in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid. Hematoxylin- and eosin- (H&E-) stained lung slices were analyzed to detect pathological changes. Quantitative polymerase-chain-reaction (qPCR) was used to investigate gene expression of ICAM-1 and MUC5 A/C. The viral/bacterial load was investigated in lung homogenate or BAL fluid. In addition to the in vivo studies, the effects of the above mentioned treatments were investigated in vitro in H1N1, RSV or NTHi-infected (primary) human bronchial epithelial cells using submerged or air-liquid-interface (ALI) cell culture systems.
Four pre-clinical models (CS/H1N1, CS/RSV, CS/NTHi, CS/H1N1/NTHi) were established depicting clinically relevant aspects of COPD exacerbations such as increased inflammatory cells and cytokines in the airways and impaired lung function.
In the CS/H1N1 model, Tiotropium improved lung function and was superior in reducing inflammation in comparison to Fluticasone or Roflumilast. Moreover, Fluticasone increased the loss of body-weight, levels of IL-6, KC and TNF-α and worsened lung function. In CS/RSV-exposed mice Tiotropium but not Fluticasone or Roflumilast treatment reduced neutrophil numbers and IL-6 and TNF α levels in the lung. The viral load of H1N1 and RSV was significantly elevated in CS/virus-exposed mice and NCI-H292 cells after Fluticasone and Dexamethasone treatment. The results from these studies demonstrate that Tiotropium has anti-inflammatory effects on CS/virus-induced inflammation and might help to explain the observed reduction of exacerbation rates in Tiotropium-treated COPD patients. Furthermore, the findings from this work indicate that treatment with Fluticasone or Dexamethasone might not be beneficial to reduce inflammation in the airways of COPD patients and supports clinical studies that link treatment with corticosteroids to an increased risk for pneumonia.
Testing of anti-IL-1α, anti-IL-1β or anti-IL-1R1 Abs in the CS/H1N1 model suggests that, in line with clinical data, antagonization of IL-1β is not sufficient to reduce pulmonary inflammation and indicates a predominant role of IL-1α in CS/virus-induced airway inflammation. In line with the in vivo findings, anti-IL-1α but not anti-IL-1β Abs reduced levels of TNF-α and IL-6 in H1N1-infected primary human bronchial epithelial ALI cell culture. Blocking the IL-1R1 provided significant inhibitory effects on inflammatory cells in vivo but was inferior compared to inhibiting both its soluble ligands IL-1α and IL-1β. Concomitant usage of Abs against IL-1α/IL-1β revealed strong effects and reduced total cells, neutrophils and macrophages. Additionally, levels of KC, IL-6, TNF-α, MCP-1, MIP-1α and MIP-1β were significantly reduced and ICAM-1 mRNA expression was attenuated. These results suggest that combined inhibition of IL-1α/IL-1β might be beneficial to reduce inflammation and exacerbations in COPD patients. Moreover, combined targeting of both IL-1α/IL-1β might be more efficient compared to inhibition of the IL-1R1.
As in the CS/virus models, corticosteroid treatment failed to reduce inflammatory cells in the CS/NTHi and CS/H1N1/NTHi models, increased the loss of body-weight and the bacterial load. Furthermore, Roflumilast administration had no significant effects on cell counts or cytokines. However, it improved compliance in the CS/NTHi model. Treatment with Azithromycin reduced the bacterial load in the CS/NTHi model and reduced numbers of total cells, neutrophils, macrophages and levels of KC and TNF-α in the CS/H1N1/NTHi model.
In conclusion, the established CS/H1N1, CS/RSV, CS/NTHi, CS/H1N1/NTHi models depict clinically relevant aspects of human COPD exacerbations in mice and provide the opportunity to investigate underlying disease mechanisms and to test novel therapies.
African trypanosomes are the causative agents of fatal diseases in humans and livestock. Trypanosomes show a complex lifecycle and shuttle between the transmitting vector, the tsetse (Glossina spec.), and the mammalian host. As a result of this the parasite undergoes tremendous changes in morphology and metabolism to adapt to the different living environments.
The two best-studied lifecycle stages are the procyclic forms (PCF) that live in the tsetse fly and the proliferative bloodstream form (BSF) that resides in the mammalian blood. The most conspicuous weapon that trypanosomes use to evade the host immune attack is a dense layer of a single protein type, the variant surface glycoprotein (VSG), which shields the entire cell surface. Immune evasion required high rates of surface membrane turnover and surface coat recycling.
Trypanosomes show highly polarised cell architecture with all major eukaryotic organelles (endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, endosomal apparatus, lysosome, mitochondrion and peroxisome-like glycosomes) generally present in single copy. Furthermore, trypanosomes possess a single flagellum, which is important not only for cellular motility but also for cell division.
How the duplication of all these cellular components is coordinated in order to progresss through the cell division cycle is poorly understood.
We used trypanosomes as a model organism due to the relative simplicity and the polarised nature of their cell architecture and determined the duplication of all their compartments. This was only possible due to a new synchronisation approach developed during this project.
In the first part of the thesis a precise temporal map of the cell division cycle of the BSF T. brucei cell division cycle was generated. By the use of well-described morphological markers (K/N status, new flagellum outgrowth and DNA synthesis) the position of individual cells was determined with high temporal resolution; this allowed us for the first time to synchronise a cell population in silico without affecting the naturally asynchronous growth.
In the second part of the thesis we used this tool to follow duplication events of the Major organelles during progression through the cell division cycle. We precisely determined the time points of organelle duplication and found that it is ordered in trypanosomes. Furthermore we found that BSF T. brucei cells do not grow continuously, cell size start to increase rapidly, during a short period of time, late in the cell division cycle. We speculate that the initiation of cell volume increase is temporally separated from the formation of all secretory organelles in order to ensure maintenance of the protective coat, which must remain intact at all times in order for BSF trypanosomes to be able to evade the host immune response.
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have considerable therapeutic abilities in various disorders, including hepatic fibrosis. They may be affected with different culture conditions. This study investigated, on molecular basics, the effect of pretreatment with eugenol on the characteristics of adipose tissue-derived MSCs (ASCs) in vitro and the implication of eugenol preconditioning on the in vivo therapeutic abilities of ASCs against CCl\(_4\)-induced hepatic fibrosis in rats. The effect of eugenol on ASCs was assessed using viability, scratch migration and sphere formation assays. Expressions of genes and proteins were estimated by immunofluorescence or qRT-PCR. For the in vivo investigations, rats were divided into four groups: the normal control group, fibrotic (CCl\(_4\)) group, CCl\(_4\)+ASCs group and CCl\(_4\) + eugenol-preconditioned ASCs (CCl\(_4\)+E-ASCs) group. Eugenol affected the viability of ASCs in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. Eugenol improved their self-renewal, proliferation and migration abilities and significantly increased their expression of c-Met, reduced expression 1 (Rex1), octamer-binding transcription factor 4 (Oct4) and nanog genes. Furthermore, E-ASCs showed more of a homing ability than ASCs and improved the serum levels of ALT, AST, albumin, total bilirubin and hyaluronic acid more efficient than ASCs in treating CCl\(_4\)-induced hepatic fibrosis, which was confirmed with histopathology. More interestingly, compared to the CCl\(_4\)+ASCs group, CCl\(_4\)+E-ASCs group showed a lower expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), cluster of differentiation 163 (CD163) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) genes and higher expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 and MMP-13 genes. This study, for the first time, revealed that eugenol significantly improved the self-renewal, migration and proliferation characteristics of ASCs, in vitro. In addition, we demonstrated that eugenol-preconditioning significantly enhanced the therapeutic abilities of the injected ASCs against CCl\(_4\)-induced hepatic fibrosis.
Drilus beetle larvae (Coleoptera: Elateridae) are specialized predators of land snails. Here, we describe various aspects of the predator-prey interactions between multiple Drilus species attacking multiple Albinaria (Gastropoda: Clausiliidae) species in Greece. We observe that Drilus species may be facultative or obligate Albinaria-specialists. We map geographically varying predation rates in Crete, where on average 24% of empty shells carry fatal Drilus bore holes. We also provide first-hand observations and video-footage of prey entry and exit strategies of the Drilus larvae, and evaluate the potential mutual evolutionary impacts. We find limited evidence for an effect of shell features and snail behavioral traits on inter-and intraspecifically differing predation rates. We also find that Drilus predators adjust their predation behavior based on specific shell traits of the prey. In conclusion, we suggest that, with these baseline data, this interesting predator-prey system will be available for further, detailed more evolutionary ecology studies.
Predicting bee community responses to land-use changes: Effects of geographic and taxonomic biases
(2016)
Land-use change and intensification threaten bee populations worldwide, imperilling pollination services. Global models are needed to better characterise, project, and mitigate bees' responses to these human impacts. The available data are, however, geographically and taxonomically unrepresentative; most data are from North America and Western Europe, overrepresenting bumblebees and raising concerns that model results may not be generalizable to other regions and taxa. To assess whether the geographic and taxonomic biases of data could undermine effectiveness of models for conservation policy, we have collated from the published literature a global dataset of bee diversity at sites facing land-use change and intensification, and assess whether bee responses to these pressures vary across 11 regions (Western, Northern, Eastern and Southern Europe; North, Central and South America; Australia and New Zealand; South East Asia; Middle and Southern Africa) and between bumblebees and other bees. Our analyses highlight strong regionally-based responses of total abundance, species richness and Simpson's diversity to land use, caused by variation in the sensitivity of species and potentially in the nature of threats. These results suggest that global extrapolation of models based on geographically and taxonomically restricted data may underestimate the true uncertainty, increasing the risk of ecological surprises.
The factors determining gradients of biodiversity are a fundamental yet unresolved topic in ecology. While diversity gradients have been analysed for numerous single taxa, progress towards general explanatory models has been hampered by limitations in the phylogenetic coverage of past studies. By parallel sampling of 25 major plant and animal taxa along a 3.7 km elevational gradient on Mt. Kilimanjaro, we quantify cross-taxon consensus in diversity gradients and evaluate predictors of diversity from single taxa to a multi-taxa community level. While single taxa show complex distribution patterns and respond to different environmental factors, scaling up diversity to the community level leads to an unambiguous support for temperature as the main predictor of species richness in both plants and animals. Our findings illuminate the influence of taxonomic coverage for models of diversity gradients and point to the importance of temperature for diversification and species coexistence in plant and animal communities.
It has been suggested that the proto-oncogene c-src plays a functional role in developing neurons, and in the mature nerve cells of higher vertebrales. The coelenterate Hydra represents tbe most primitive known organism possessing nerve cells. With Southern blot hybridizations we have demonstrated src-related sequences in Hydra. Antisera specific for the c-src gene product (pp60 c-src) of birds and mammals precipitate a protein from Hydra cell extracts with a tyrosine-specific protein kinase activity. Studies of tissues and cells fractionated from a temperature sensitive mutant of Hydra which is depleted of interstitial (including nerve) cells at tbe non-permissive temperature, have indicated the src-like kinase of Hydra to be preferentially expressed in nerve cells. The high conservation of structural features and of the expression pattern indicates a basic function for pp60c-src in neurons.
The fungus Neurospora crassa represents a eukaryotic cell with high biosynthetic activities. Cell mass doubles in 2-4 hr during expone ntial growth , even in simple salt media with sucrose as the sole carbon source. The microorgani sm forms a mycelium of long hyphae durlng vegetative growth . The mitochondria can be isolated under relatively gentle condi tions since a few breaks in the threadlike hyphae are sufficient to cause the outflow of the organelles. This article describes two methods for the physical disruption of the hyphae : (I) The cell s are opened in a grind mill between two rotating corundum di sks. This is a continuous and fast procedure and allows large- and small-scale preparations of mitochondria. (2) Hyphae are ground with sand in a mortar and pestle. This procedure can be applied to microscale preparations of mitochondria starting with minute amounts of cells. Other procedures for the isolation of Neurospora mitochondria after the physical di sruption or the enzymatic degradation of the cell wall have been described elsewhere
During an investigation into the substrate specificity and processing of subtilisin Carlsberg from Bacillus licheniformis, two major independent findings were made: (i) as has been shown previously, a stretch of five amino acids (residues 97-101 of the mature enzyme) that loops out into the binding cleft is involved in substrate binding by subtilisin Carlsberg. In order to see whether this loop element also determines substrate specificity, the coding region for these five amino acids was deleted from the cloned gene for subtilisin Carlsberg by site-directed mutagenesis. Unexpectedly the resulting mutant preproenzyme (P42c, M<sub>r</sub>=42 kDa) was not processed to the mature form (M<sub>r</sub> = 30 kDa) and was not released into the medium by a proteasedeficient B. subtilis host strain; rather, it accumulated in the cell membrane. This result demonstrates that the integrity of this loop element, which is very distant from the processing cleavage sites in the preproenzyme, is required for secretion of subtilisin Carlsberg. (ii) In culture supernatants from B. subtilis harbouring the cloned wild-type subtilisin Carlsberg gene the transient appearance (at 0-3 h after onset of stationary phase) of a processing intermediate (P38c, M<sub>r</sub> = 38 kDa) oftbis protease could be demonstrated. P38c very probably represents a genuine proform of subtilisin Carlsberg.
Primary determinants of communities in deadwood vary among taxa but are regionally consistent
(2020)
The evolutionary split between gymnosperms and angiosperms has far‐reaching implications for the current communities colonizing trees. The inherent characteristics of dead wood include its role as a spatially scattered habitat of plant tissue, transient in time. Thus, local assemblages in deadwood forming a food web in a necrobiome should be affected not only by dispersal ability but also by host tree identity, the decay stage and local abiotic conditions. However, experiments simultaneously manipulating these potential community drivers in deadwood are lacking. To disentangle the importance of spatial distance and microclimate, as well as host identity and decay stage as drivers of local assemblages, we conducted two consecutive experiments, a 2‐tree species and 6‐tree species experiment with 80 and 72 tree logs, respectively, located in canopy openings and under closed canopies of a montane and a lowland forest. We sampled saproxylic beetles, spiders, fungi and bacterial assemblages from logs. Variation partitioning for community metrics based on a unified framework of Hill numbers showed consistent results for both studies: host identity was most important for sporocarp‐detected fungal assemblages, decay stage and host tree for DNA‐detected fungal assemblages, microclimate and decay stage for beetles and spiders and decay stage for bacteria. Spatial distance was of minor importance for most taxa but showed the strongest effects for arthropods. The contrasting patterns among the taxa highlight the need for multi‐taxon analyses in identifying the importance of abiotic and biotic drivers of community composition. Moreover, the consistent finding of microclimate as the primary driver for saproxylic beetles compared to host identity shows, for the first time that existing evolutionary host adaptions can be outcompeted by local climate conditions in deadwood.
The demonstration ofthe chromosomal mode ofsex determinationvia genetic experiments as well as the absence of heteromorphic sex chromosomes affirm poeciliid fishes as a unique group among vertebrates that are endowed with the mostprimitive form of sex chromosornes. In many different taxa the evolutionary process involved in the differentiation ofadvanced sex chromosomes is outlined through sex specifically organized repetitive sequences. In this investigation hydridization of synthetic probes specific to genomic simple repeat motifs uncovers a sex-specific hybridization pattern in certain viviparaus fishes ofthe family Poeciliidae. The hybridization pattern together with specific staining ofthe constitutive heterochromatin by C-banding reveals heterogamety in males (Poecilia reticulata) as weil as in females (P. sphenops). In P. velifera, however, C-banding alone fails to unravel the heterogametic status. The female specific W-chromosome can be detected by simple repetitive sequence probes. Therefore, the principal significance of heterochromatization as a means of generating differentiated sex chromosomes is evident.
The honeybee is a well studied and important organism in neuroethology. The possibility to train them with a classical conditioning paradigm and their miniature brain provide a perfect requisite to investigate the neuronal principles of learning and memory. Honeybees use visual and olfactory cues to detect flowers during their foraging trips. Hence, the reward association of a nectar source is a multi-modal construct, which has at least two major components - olfactory and visual cues. It is still an open question, how both sensory components are converged in the mushroom body, which represent the multi-modal integration centre of the honeybee brain. The main goal of this study, is to investigate the processing of multiple modalities and how a reward association is formed. This includes, how and wether both sensory modalities interfere during learning. Thus, in this study stimulation with UV, blue and green light was used to evoke distinct photoreceptor activities in the compound eye. Furthermore, three different odours (Geraniol, Citronellol and Farnesol) were used. These stimuli were tested in three different experimental series. The first experiment involved classical differential conditioning of the single modalities - odour and colour. Honeybees showed high learning performances in differentiating olfactory stimuli and also reliable responses for visual conditioning. Furthermore, a temporal discrepancy in the stimulus length for best learning in the olfatcoty and visual cues was found. In the second series, it was tested how multi-modal compounds are perceived. This includes, unique cues (configural processing) or the sum of the single components of a compound (elemen- tal processing). This was tested by combining single odour components with monochromatic light in a positive (PP) and negative patterning (NP) experiment. During PP, the olfactory- visual compound was rewarded, whereas the single components were unrewarded. In contrast, during NP the single components were reinforced, but the compound was not. In addition, the ability to distinguish between two different light stimuli presented as a part of an olfactory-visual compound with the same odour component during acquisition was tested. In a memory test, the light stimuli were presented again as a compound and in addition as the single components. The results revealed that bees used elemental processing with compounds containing green and blue light. In contrast, when UV light was presented the bees used configural processing. Finally, a third experiment was conducted at the neuronal level. Multi-unit recordings were established to provide a suitable method to analyse extrinsic neurons at the mushroom body output region, the so called ventral lobe of the pedunculus. Here, three different odours (Geran- iol, Farnesol and Citronellol), two colours (green and blue) and two combined stimuli (colour + odour) were chosen as stimuli, to search for possible variations in processing stimuli with different modalities. Two units could be detected that responded mainly to visual stimuli.
PRO-Simat is a simulation tool for analysing protein interaction networks, their dynamic change and pathway engineering. It provides GO enrichment, KEGG pathway analyses, and network visualisation from an integrated database of more than 8 million protein-protein interactions across 32 model organisms and the human proteome. We integrated dynamical network simulation using the Jimena framework, which quickly and efficiently simulates Boolean genetic regulatory networks. It enables simulation outputs with in-depth analysis of the type, strength, duration and pathway of the protein interactions on the website. Furthermore, the user can efficiently edit and analyse the effect of network modifications and engineering experiments. In case studies, applications of PRO-Simat are demonstrated: (i) understanding mutually exclusive differentiation pathways in Bacillus subtilis, (ii) making Vaccinia virus oncolytic by switching on its viral replication mainly in cancer cells and triggering cancer cell apoptosis and (iii) optogenetic control of nucleotide processing protein networks to operate DNA storage. Multilevel communication between components is critical for efficient network switching, as demonstrated by a general census on prokaryotic and eukaryotic networks and comparing design with synthetic networks using PRO-Simat. The tool is available at https://prosimat.heinzelab.de/ as a web-based query server.
Plant hormones involving salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA), ethylene (Et), and auxin, gibberellins, and abscisic acid (ABA) are known to regulate host immune responses. However, plant hormone cytokinin has the potential to modulate defense signaling including SA and JA. It promotes plant pathogen and herbivore resistance; underlying mechanisms are still unknown. Using systems biology approaches, we unravel hub points of immune interaction mediated by cytokinin signaling in Arabidopsis. High-confidence Arabidopsis protein-protein interactions (PPI) are coupled to changes in cytokinin-mediated gene expression. Nodes of the cellular interactome that are enriched in immune functions also reconstitute sub-networks. Topological analyses and their specific immunological relevance lead to the identification of functional hubs in cellular interactome. We discuss our identified immune hubs in light of an emerging model of cytokinin-mediated immune defense against pathogen infection in plants.
The behavior of honeybees and bumblebees relies on a constant sensory integration of abiotic or biotic stimuli. As eusocial insects, a sophisticated intraspecific communication as well as the processing of multisensory cues during foraging is of utter importance. To tackle the arising challenges, both honeybees and bumblebees have evolved a sophisticated olfactory and visual processing system.
In both organisms, olfactory reception starts at the antennae, where olfactory sensilla cover the antennal surface in a sex-specific manner. These sensilla house olfactory receptor neurons (ORN) that express olfactory receptors. ORNs send their axons via four tracts to the antennal lobe (AL), the prime olfactory processing center in the bee brain. Here, ORNs specifically innervate spheroidal structures, so-called glomeruli, in which they form synapses with local interneurons and projection neurons (PN). PNs subsequently project the olfactory information via two distinct tracts, the medial and the lateral antennal-lobe tract, to the mushroom body (MB), the main center of sensory integration and memory formation. In the honeybee calyx, the sensory input region of the MB, PNs synapse on Kenyon cells (KC), the principal neuron type of the MB. Olfactory PNs mainly innervate the lip and basal ring layer of the calyx. In addition, the basal ring receives input from visual PNs, making it the first site of integration of visual and olfactory information. Visual PNs, carrying sensory information from the optic lobes, send their terminals not only to the to the basal ring compartment but also to the collar of the calyx. Receiving olfactory or visual input, KCs send their axons along the MB peduncle and terminate in the main output regions of the MB, the medial and the vertical lobe (VL) in a layer-specific manner. In the MB lobes, KCs synapse onto mushroom body output neurons (MBON). In so far barely understood processes, multimodal information is integrated by the MBONs and then relayed further into the protocerebral lobes, the contralateral brain hemisphere, or the central brain among others.
This dissertation comprises a dichotomous structure that (i) aims to gain more insight into the olfactory processing in bumblebees and (ii) sets out to broaden our understanding of visual processing in honeybee MBONs.
The first manuscript examines the olfactory processing of Bombus terrestris and specifically investigates sex-specific differences. We used behavioral (absolute conditioning) and electrophysiological approaches to elaborate the processing of ecologically relevant odors (components of plant odors and pheromones) at three distinct levels, in the periphery, in the AL and during olfactory conditioning. We found both sexes to form robust memories after absolute conditioning and to generalize towards the carbon chain length of the presented odors. On the contrary, electroantennographic (EAG) activity showed distinct stimulus and sex-specific activity, e.g. reduced activity towards citronellol in drones. Interestingly, extracellular multi-unit recordings in the AL confirmed stimulus and sex-specific differences in olfactory processing, but did not reflect the differences previously found in the EAG. Here, farnesol and 2,3-dihydrofarnesol, components of sex-specific pheromones, show a distinct representation, especially in workers, corroborating the results of a previous study. This explicitly different representation suggests that the peripheral stimulus representation is an imperfect indication for neuronal representation in high-order neuropils and ecological importance of a specific odor.
The second manuscript investigates MBONs in honeybees to gain more insights into visual processing in the VL. Honeybee MBONs can be categorized into visually responsive, olfactory responsive and multimodal. To clarify which visual features are represented at this high-order integration center, we used extracellular multi-unit recordings in combination with visual and olfactory stimulation. We show for the first time that information about brightness and wavelength is preserved in the VL. Furthermore, we defined three specific classes of visual MBONs that distinctly encode the intensity, identity or simply the onset of a stimulus. The identity-subgroup exhibits a specific tuning towards UV light. These results support the view of the MB as the center of multimodal integration that categorizes sensory input and subsequently channels this information into specific MBON populations.
Finally, I discuss differences between the peripheral representations of stimuli and their distinct processing in high-order neuropils. The unique activity of farnesol in manuscript 1 or the representation of UV light in manuscript 2 suggest that the peripheral representation of a stimulus is insufficient as a sole indicator for its neural activity in subsequent neuropils or its putative behavioral importance. In addition, I discuss the influence of hard-wired concepts or plasticity induced changes in the sensory pathways on the processing of such key stimuli in the peripheral reception as well as in high-order centers like the AL or the MB. The MB as the center of multisensory integration has been broadly examined for its olfactory processing capabilities and receives increasing interest about its visual coding properties. To further unravel its role of sensory integration and to include neglected modalities, future studies need to combine additional approaches and gain more insights on the multimodal aspects in both the input and output region.
Processing peptidase of Neurospora mitochondria. Two-step cleavage of imported ATPase subunit 9
(1984)
Subunit 9 (dicyclohexylcarbodümide binding protein, 'proteolipid') of the mitochondrial F 1F0-ATPase is a nuclearly coded protein in Neurospora crassa. lt is synthesized on free cytoplasmic ribosomes as a larger precursor with an NH2-terminal peptide extension. The peptide extension is cleaved ofT after transport of the protein into the mitochondria. A processing activity referred to as processing peptidase that cleaves the precursor to subunit 9 and other mitochondrial proteins is described and characterized using a cell-free system. Precursor synthesized in vitro was incubated with extracts of mitochondria. Processing peptidase required Mn2 + for its activity. Localization studies suggested that it is a soluble component of the mitochondrial matrix. The precursor was cleaved in two sequential steps via an intermediate-sized polypeptide. The intermediate form in the processing of subunit 9 was also seen in vivo and upon import of the precursor into isolated mitochondria in vitro. The two dcavage sites in the precursor molecule were determined. The data indicate that: {a) the correct NH2-terminus of the mature protein was generated, (b) the NH2-terminal amino acid of the intermediate-sized polypeptide is isoleueine in position -31. The cleavage sites show similarity ofprimary structure. It is concluded that processing peptidase removes the peptide extension from the precursor to subunit 9 (and probably other precursors) after translocation of these polypeptides (or the NHrterminal part of these polypeptides) into the matrix space of mitochondria.
In culture supematants of both Listeria ivanovii and Listeria monocytogenes Sv4b, for the first time a hemolysin of molecular weight 58 kDa was identified, which had all the characteristics of an SH-activated cytolysin, and which was therefore identified as Iisteriolysin 0 (LLO). In the case of L. ivanovii a second major supematant protein of molecular weight 24 kDa co-purified with LLO. However, the function of this protein has to be determined. In culture supematants of L. ivanovii a sphingomyelinase and a Iecithinase activity could be detected, both enzymatic activities together contributing to the pronounced hemolysis caused by L. ivanovii. The N-tenninal amino acid sequences of LLO and the 24 kDa from L. ivanovii are shown.
Cytochrome oxidase isolated from N eurospora crassa was resolved into seven protein eomponents by eleetrophoresis in polyaerylamide gels eontaining sodium dodeeylsulfate. The apparent molecular weights were determined tobe 41000, 28500, 21000, 16000, 14000, 11500 and 10000 for the eomponents 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, respectively. The components 1, 2 and 3 are synthesized on mitochondrial ribosomes as shown by the incorporation of radioactive amino aeids in the presenee of cyeloheximide. Amino-acidanalysis of the isolated components 1, 2 and 3 revealed a high content of apolar amino acids and a low eontent of basic amino aeids compared to an average amino-aeid eomposition of components 4-7. Components 1, 2 and 3 eontribute 27.9°/0, 18°/0 and 14.2°/0 to the whole eytoehrome oxidase protein. This was calculated from the contributions of the single eomponents to the totalleueine eontent of the enzyme and the leueine eontents (nmol leueine per mg protein) of the single eomponents as determined by amino-aeid analysis. Equimolar relations of the components 1, 2 and 3 are found by dividing the amounts of protein by their apparent molecular weights. A stoichiometry of 1:1:1 results assuming a minimal molecular weight of 150000 for the whole cytochrome oxidase protein. On the basis of the heme a content a molecular weight of about 70000 per heme group was determined, using an absorption coeffieient L1e605 (redueed minus oxidized) of 12 mM-1 cm-1• It is concluded that the smallest structural unit of eytochrome oxidase contains two heme groups.
proGenomes: a resource for consistent functional and taxonomic annotations of prokaryotic genomes
(2017)
The availability of microbial genomes has opened many new avenues of research within microbiology. This has been driven primarily by comparative genomics approaches, which rely on accurate and consistent characterization of genomic sequences. It is nevertheless difficult to obtain consistent taxonomic and integrated functional annotations for defined prokaryotic clades. Thus, we developed proGenomes, a resource that provides user-friendly access to currently 25 038 high-quality genomes whose sequences and consistent annotations can be retrieved individually or by taxonomic clade. These genomes are assigned to 5306 consistent and accurate taxonomic species clusters based on previously established methodology. proGenomes also contains functional information for almost 80 million protein-coding genes, including a comprehensive set of general annotations and more focused annotations for carbohydrate-active enzymes and antibiotic resistance genes. Additionally, broad habitat information is provided for many genomes. All genomes and associated information can be downloaded by user-selected clade or multiple habitat-specific sets of representative genomes. We expect that the availability of high-quality genomes with comprehensive functional annotations will promote advances in clinical microbial genomics, functional evolution and other subfields of microbiology. proGenomes is available at http://progenomes.embl.de.
Since ancient times aging has also been regarded as a disease, and humankind has always strived to extend the natural lifespan. Analyzing the genes involved in aging and disease allows for finding important indicators and biological markers for pathologies and possible therapeutic targets. An example of the use of omics technologies is the research regarding aging and the rare and fatal premature aging syndrome progeria (Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome, HGPS). In our study, we focused on the in silico analysis of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in progeria and aging, using a publicly available RNA-Seq dataset (GEO dataset GSE113957) and a variety of bioinformatics tools. Despite the GSE113957 RNA-Seq dataset being well-known and frequently analyzed, the RNA-Seq data shared by Fleischer et al. is far from exhausted and reusing and repurposing the data still reveals new insights. By analyzing the literature citing the use of the dataset and subsequently conducting a comparative analysis comparing the RNA-Seq data analyses of different subsets of the dataset (healthy children, nonagenarians and progeria patients), we identified several genes involved in both natural aging and progeria (KRT8, KRT18, ACKR4, CCL2, UCP2, ADAMTS15, ACTN4P1, WNT16, IGFBP2). Further analyzing these genes and the pathways involved indicated their possible roles in aging, suggesting the need for further in vitro and in vivo research. In this paper, we (1) compare “normal aging” (nonagenarians vs. healthy children) and progeria (HGPS patients vs. healthy children), (2) enlist genes possibly involved in both the natural aging process and progeria, including the first mention of IGFBP2 in progeria, (3) predict miRNAs and interactomes for WNT16 (hsa-mir-181a-5p), UCP2 (hsa-mir-26a-5p and hsa-mir-124-3p), and IGFBP2 (hsa-mir-124-3p, hsa-mir-126-3p, and hsa-mir-27b-3p), (4) demonstrate the compatibility of well-established R packages for RNA-Seq analysis for researchers interested but not yet familiar with this kind of analysis, and (5) present comparative proteomics analyses to show an association between our RNA-Seq data analyses and corresponding changes in protein expression.
Prohibitin 1 (PHB1) is a highly conserved protein that together with its homologue prohibitin 2 (PHB2) mainly localizes to the inner mitochondrial membrane. Although it was originally identified by its ability to inhibit G1/S progression in human fibroblasts, its role as tumor suppressor is debated. To determine the function of prohibitins in maintaining cell homeostasis, we generated cancer cell lines expressing prohibitin-directed shRNAs. We show that prohibitin proteins are necessary for the proliferation of cancer cells. Down-regulation of prohibitin expression drastically reduced the rate of cell division. Furthermore, mitochondrial morphology was not affected, but loss of prohibitins did lead to the degradation of the fusion protein OPA1 and, in certain cancer cell lines, to a reduced capability to exhibit anchorage-independent growth. These cancer cells also exhibited reduced adhesion to the extracellular matrix. Taken together, these observations suggest prohibitins play a crucial role in adhesion processes in the cell and thereby sustaining cancer cell propagation and survival.
In the course of this study, several endogenous compounds and model substances were used to mimic the conditions in patients suffering from hypertension. As endogenous compounds, angiotensin II and aldosterone were chosen. As model substances, 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide (NQO), hydrogen peroxide and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) were selected. Benfotiamine as well as α-tocopherol proved in the course of the experiments to be able to prevent angiotensin II-induced formation of oxidative DNA strand breaks and micronuclei. This could be due to a prior inhibition of the release of reactive oxygen species and is in contrast to results which were achieved using thiamine. Furthermore, experiments in which cells were pre-incubated with benfotiamine followed by incubation with NQO showed that benfotiamine was not able to prevent the induction of oxidative stress. The hypothesis that benfotiamine has, like α-tocopherol, direct antioxidative capacity was fortified by measurements in cell free systems. In brief, a new working mechanism for benfotiamine in addition to the ones already known could be provided. In the second part of the study, angiotensin II was shown to be dose-dependently genotoxic. This effect is mediated via the angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1R) which. Further experiments were extended from in vitro settings to the isolated perfused kidney. Here it could be shown that angiotensin II caused vasoconstriction and DNA strand breaks. Co-perfusion of kidneys with angiotensin II and candesartan prevented vasoconstriction and formation of strand breaks. DNA strand break formation due to mechanical stress or hypoxia could be ruled out after additional experiments with the thromboxane mimetic U 46619. Detailed investigation of the DNA damage in vitro revealed that angiotensin II induces single strand breaks, double strand breaks and 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-oxodG)-adducts as well as abasic sites. Investigations of the effects of aldosterone-treatment in kidney cells showed an increase of oxidative stress, DNA strand breaks and micronuclei which could be prevented by the steroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist eplerenone. Additional experiments with the non-steroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist (S)-BR-4628 revealed that this substance was also able to prevent oxidative stress and genomic damage and proved to be more potent than eplerenone. In vivo, hyperaldosteronism was imitated in rats by aid of the deoxycorticosteroneacetate (DOCA) salt model. After this treatment, levels of DNA strand breaks and chromosomal aberrations in the kidney could be observed. Furthermore, an increase in the release of ROS could be measured. Treatment of these animals with spironolactone , BR-4628 and enalaprile revealed that all antagonists were effective BR-4628 was the most potent drug. Finally, rosuvastatin was investigated. In HL-60 cells phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate caused oxidative stress. Rosuvastatin was able to prevent the release of ROS and subsequent oxidative DNA damage when co-incubated with PMA. Furthermore, not only an inhibition of PMA-induced oxidative stress but also inhibition of the unspecific release of ROS induced by hydrogen peroxide was observable. Addition of farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP), geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP), and mevalonate, intermediates of the cholesterol pathway, caused only a marginal increase of oxidative stress in cells treated simultaneously with PMA and rosuvastatin, thus indicating the effect of rosuvastatin to be HMG-CoA-reductase-independent. Investigation of the gene expression of subunits of NAD(P)H oxidase revealed a down-regulation of p67phox following rosuvastatin-treatment. Furthermore, it could be shown that rosuvastatin treatment alone or in combination with PMA increased total glutathione levels probably due to an induction of the gene expression and enzyme activity of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase (γ-GCS).
Protection of healthy tissues from infection with systemically administered vaccinia virus strains
(2012)
Oncolytic virotherapy using recombinant vaccinia virus strains is a promising approach for the treatment of cancer. To further improve the safety of oncolytic vaccinia viruses, the cellular microRNA machinery can be applied as the host’s own security mechanism to avoid unwanted viral replication in healthy tissues. MicroRNAs are a class of small single-stranded RNAs which due to their ability to mediate post-transcriptional gene-silencing, play a crucial role in almost every regulatory process in cellular metabolism. Different cancers display unique microRNA expression patterns, showing significant up- or downregulation of endogenously expressed microRNAs. Furthermore, the behavior of cancer cells can be altered by either adding microRNAs known to inhibit cancer cell spread and proliferation or suppressing cancer promoting microRNAs (oncomirs) making microRNAs promising targets for cancer gene therapy. The cell’s own RNAi machinery can also be utilized to control viral replication due to the virus dependence on the host cell replication machinery, a process controlled by microRNAs. GLV-1h68 is a replication-competent recombinant oncolytic vaccinia virus constructed and generated by Genelux Corp., San Diego, CA, USA which carries insertions of three reporter gene cassettes for detection and attenuation purposes and is currently being evaluated for cancer treatment in clinical trials. Though there are hardly any side effects found in GLV-1h68 mediated oncolytic therapy an increased tropism for replication exclusively in cancer cells is desirable. Therefore it was investigated whether or not further cancer cell specificity of a recombinant vaccinia virus strain could be obtained without compromising its oncolytic activity using microRNA interference. Let-7a is a well characterized microRNA known to be expressed in high levels in healthy tissues and strongly downregulated in most cancers. To control vaccinia virus replication rates, four copies of the mature human microRNA let-7a target sequence were cloned behind the stop codon in the 3’end of the vaccinia virus D4R gene, using a GLV-1h68 derivative, GLV-1h190, as parental strain yielding the new recombinant virus strain GLV-1h250. The D4R gene belongs to the group of early transcribed vaccinia genes and encodes an essential enzyme, uracil DNA glycosylase, which catalyzes the removal of uracil residues from double-stranded DNA. A defect in D4R prevents vaccinia virus from entering into the intermediate and late phase of replication, leading to an aborted virus replication. After expression of the microRNA target sequence from the vaccinia virus genome, the endogenously expressed microRNA-let-7a should recognize its target structure within the viral mRNA transcript, thereby binding and degrading the viral mRNA which should lead to a strong inhibition of the virus replication in healthy cells. GLV-1h250 replication rates in cancerous A549 lung adenocarcinoma cells, which show a strong down-regulation of microRNA let-7a, was comparable to the replication rates of its parental strain GLV-1h190 and the control strain GLV-1h68. In contrast, GLV-1h250 displayed a 10-fold decrease in viral replication in non-cancerous ERC cells when compared to GLV-1h190 and GLV-1h68. In A549 tumor bearing nude mice GLV-1h250 replicated exclusively in the tumorous tissue and resulted in efficient tumor regression without adverse effects leading to the conclusion that GLV-1h250 replicates preferentially in cancerous cells and tissues, which display low endogenous let-7a expression levels.
BAKTERIELLE ENDOSYMBIONTEN DER BIENENWÖLFE Symbiontische Interaktionen zwischen verschiedenen Arten stellen allgegenwärtige und essentielle Bestandteile natürlicher Systeme dar und haben wahrscheinlich die Evolution jedes rezenten Lebewesens beeinflusst. Insekten als die diverseste Metazoen-Klasse der Erde profitieren von dem außerordentlichen metabolischen Potenzial vieler Mikroorganismen in einer großen Anzahl mutualistischer Assoziationen. Die große Mehrheit der bisher untersuchten Symbiosen zwischen Insekten und Mikroorganismen stellen Interaktionen dar, in denen die Wirte durch die Symbionten mit essentiellen Nährstoffen versorgt werden. Es sind jedoch auch einige Fälle bekannt, in denen symbiontische Bakterien eine wichtige Rolle für die intraspezifische olfaktorische Kommunikation spielen oder zur Verteidigung gegen Pathogene oder Parasitoide dienen. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht eine hoch spezialisierte Assoziation zwischen einer Grabwespen-Art, dem Europäischen Bienenwolf (Philanthus triangulum, Hymenoptera, Crabronidae), und Bakterien aus der Familie der Actinomyceten. Die bakteriellen Symbionten sind an einem einzigartigen Ort zu finden: Sie werden in den Reservoiren spezialisierter Antennendrüsen weiblicher Bienenwölfe kultiviert. Das Weibchen sezerniert vor der Eiablage große Mengen dieser Bakterien in die unterirdischen Brutkammern. Wenn die Bienewolf-Larve einige Tage später ihre Nahrungsaufnahme an den von der Mutter als Nahrungsvorrat bereitgestellten Honigbienen beendet hat, nimmt sie die Bakterien auf und spinnt sie in ihren Kokon mit ein. Dort erfüllen die Symbionten eine wichtige Funktion, indem sie den Schimmelbefall herabsetzen und dadurch die Überlebenschancen der Larve im Kokon während der langen und gefährlichen Winterruhe signifikant erhöhen. Experimente, in denen Bienenwolf-Weibchen ohne die Bakterien aufgezogen wurden, und Beobachtungen an Bienenwolf-Larven deuten darauf hin, dass die Symbionten vertikal von der Mutter an die Töchter weitergegeben werden. Vermutlich werden die Bakterien während des Schlupfes oder kurz davor vom Kokon in die Antennendrüsen-Reservoire aufgenommen. Phylogenetische Untersuchungen von Wirten und Symbionten sowie Transfer-Experimente mit den Bakterien wären notwendig, um herauszufinden, ob ein horizontaler Austausch der Symbionten zwischen verschiedenen Bienenwolf-Arten möglich ist. Genetische Analysen zeigen, dass die Symbionten einer unbeschriebenen Art der Gattung Streptomyces innerhalb der Actinomyceten angehören. 16s rDNA Primer und eine fluoreszenzmarkierte Oligonukleotid-Sonde wurden entwickelt, um die Bienenwolf-Symbionten mittels PCR und Fluoreszenz-in-situ-Hybridisierung (FISH) spezifisch nachweisen zu können. Mit Hilfe von PCR und Sequenzierungen der 16s rDNA konnten nah verwandte Endosymbionten in den Antennen von 28 Arten und Unterarten der Gattung Philanthus festgestellt werden, nicht aber in anderen Gattungen der Unterfamilie Philanthinae (Aphilanthops, Clypeadon, Cerceris), so dass die Symbiose auf die Gattung Philanthus beschränkt zu sein scheint. Phylogenetische Untersuchungen auf der Grundlage nahezu kompletter 16s rDNA-Sequenzen belegen, dass die Symbionten aller analysierten Bienenwolf- Arten eine monophyletische Gruppe innerhalb der Gattung Streptomyces bilden, was darauf hindeutet, dass die Symbiose hoch spezifisch ist und wahrscheinlich das Ergebnis einer langen Koevolution und Kospeziation darstellt. Anhand von Sequenzunterschieden zwischen den Symbionten lässt sich das Alter der Assoziation zwischen Philanthus und Streptomyces auf etwa 26-67 Millionen Jahre schätzen, was der Entstehung der Gattung Philanthus entsprechen könnte. Auf der Basis von 16s rDNA Sequenzen und Ultrastruktur-Daten wurden die Antennensymbionten der Bienenwölfe als neues Taxon ‚Candidatus Streptomyces philanthi’ beschrieben, wobei die Symbionten verschiedener Wirtsarten als Ökotypen behandelt und nach der Wirtsart benannt wurden (z.B. ‚Candidatus Streptomyces philanthi triangulum’). Wie die Bakterien von der Assoziation mit Bienenwölfen profitieren, ist noch unklar. Auf jeden Fall wird ihnen vom Wirt eine unbesetzte und wahrscheinlich konkurrenzfreie ökologische Nische in den Antennen sowie eine zuverlässige Weitergabe an die nächste Generation garantiert. Außerdem sprechen einige Hinweise für eine Versorgung der Bakterien mit Nährstoffen durch den Bienenwolf: (1) Weibchen legen manchmal mehrere Brutkammern pro Tag an und sezernieren jedes Mal große Mengen an Bakterien; die Bakterien müssen sich also in den Drüsen-Reservoiren schnell vermehren, um den Vorrat an Symbionten wieder aufzufüllen. (2) Die Reservoire sind von Typ 3-Drüsenzellen umgeben, die die Bakterien mit Nährstoffen versorgen könnten. (3) Eine der Reservoir-Wände weist eine netzartige Struktur auf, die möglicherweise den Eintritt von Hämolymphe und damit von Nährstoffen in das Reservoir zulässt. Dies wird durch chemische Analysen der Kohlenwasserstoffe in der Hämolymphe und in dem Antennendrüsen-Sekret untermauert, die sehr ähnliche Zusammensetzungen aufweisen. Die Assoziation zwischen Bienenwölfen und Streptomyceten stellt den ersten bekannten Fall einer Symbiose dar, bei der Bakterien in den Antennen von Insekten kultiviert werden, und sie repräsentiert eines von wenigen Beispielen für Actinomyceten als Symbionten von Insekten. Weitere Untersuchungen evolutionärer und ökologischer Aspekte dieser Symbiose werden wertvolle Erkenntnisse über die Bedeutung von Actinomyceten für die Pathogen-Abwehr bei Insekten liefern und könnten sogar zur Entdeckung neuer Sekundärmetabolite mit antibiotischen Eigenschaften für die Verwendung in der Humanmedizin führen. CHEMISCHE KOMMUNIKATION UND PARTNERWAHL BEIM EUROPÄISCHEN BIENENWOLF Chemische Signale stellen sowohl die älteste als auch die am weitesten verbreitete Form von Kommunikation zwischen Organismen dar. Bei Insekten spielen Pheromone eine essentielle Rolle für die intraspezifische Kommunikation, und eine Vielzahl aktueller Untersuchungen belegt die Bedeutung olfaktorischer Signale für die Balz und Paarung. Die meisten dieser Studien konzentrieren sich jedoch auf Weibchen-Pheromone, während von Männchen produzierte Pheromone trotz ihrer ökologischen und evolutionären Bedeutung für die Partneranlockung und Partnerwahl bisher wenig Beachtung gefunden haben. Männchen des Europäischen Bienenwolfes etablieren und verteidigen Territorien, die sie mit einem Kopfdrüsen-Sekret markieren. Dieses Sekret wirkt höchstwahrscheinlich als ein Sex- Pheromon und lockt paarungsbereite Weibchen an. Da Männchen-Territorien meist aggregiert in der Nähe von Weibchennestern auftreten, haben die Weibchen die Möglichkeit, zwischen verschiedenen potenziellen Paarungspartnern zu wählen. Die chemischen Analysen der vorliegenden Arbeit zeigen, dass die Zusammensetzung und Menge des männlichen Markierpheromons vom Verwandtschaftsgrad, der Herkunft, dem Alter und der Größe der Männchen abhängen. Das Pheromon beinhaltet demnach Informationen über eine Vielzahl von Eigenschaften der Männchen, die für die Weibchenwahl von Bedeutung sein könnten. Sowohl die genetische Distanz („optimal outbreeding“) als auch die allgemeine genetische Qualität („good genes“) eines Männchens könnte die Partnerwahl der Bienenwolf-Weibchen beeinflussen. In dieser Arbeit für den Europäischen Bienenwolf entwickelte polymorphe Mikrosatelliten legen den Grundstein für Vaterschaftsanalysen und ermöglichen so die Durchführung und Auswertung von Experimenten zur Weibchenwahl bei dieser Art.
Fungi possess diverse photosensory proteins that allow them to perceive different light wavelengths and to adapt to changing light conditions in their environment. The biological and physiological roles of the green light-sensing rhodopsins in fungi are not yet resolved. The rice plant pathogen Fusarium fujikuroi exhibits two different rhodopsins, CarO and OpsA. CarO was previously characterized as a light-driven proton pump. We further analyzed the pumping behavior of CarO by patch-clamp experiments. Our data show that CarO pumping activity is strongly augmented in the presence of the plant hormone indole-3-acetic acid and in sodium acetate, in a dose-dependent manner under slightly acidic conditions. By contrast, under these and other tested conditions, the Neurospora rhodopsin (NR)-like rhodopsin OpsA did not exhibit any pump activity. Basic local alignment search tool (BLAST) searches in the genomes of ascomycetes revealed the occurrence of rhodopsin-encoding genes mainly in phyto-associated or phytopathogenic fungi, suggesting a possible correlation of the presence of rhodopsins with fungal ecology. In accordance, rice plants infected with a CarO-deficient F. fujikuroi strain showed more severe bakanae symptoms than the reference strain, indicating a potential role of the CarO rhodopsin in the regulation of plant infection by this fungus.
VACV GLV-1h68 was reported as a diagnostic/therapeutic vector which enters, replicates in, and reveals the locations of tumors in mice. Furthermore, the effect on tumor colonization, on tumor growth, regression and eradication by VACV GLV-1h68 without the need of any known genes with anti-tumoral activities was determined. To investigate differential protein expression between infected tumor cells and corresponding tumors, as well as between infected tumor cells, between infected tumors, proteomics is particularly used, possibly contributing to the understanding oncolytic ability on the protein level of VACV GLV-1h68. The given effects of VACV GLV-1h68 infection on cellular protein expression support tumor cell killing. In this study, differential protein expression was analyzed at different time points with two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) followed by MALDI-TOF/TOF identification. Comparative analysis of multiple 2-DE gels revealed that the majority of protein expression changes appeared at 48 hours post infection in cell cultivation and at 42 days post infection in tumors. Mass spectrometry identified 68, 75, 159 altered cellular proteins in the GI-101A, HT-29, PC-3 infected cells, respectively, including 30, 23, 49 up-regulated proteins and 38, 52, 110 down-regulated proteins 12 to 48 hours after infection. For xenografts, mass spectrometry identified 270, 101, 91 altered cellular proteins in the infected GI-101A, HT-29, PC-3 tumors, respectively, including 89, 70, 40 up-regulated proteins and 181, 31, 51 down-regulated proteins 7 to 42 days after infection. In general, in the cell lines, the proteins found to be differentially regulated are most often associated with metabolic processes, in particular with primary energy metabolism (glucose catabolism, TCA and lactate production). VAVC GLV 1h68 infection results in hijacking of the host translation apparatus, alteration of cytoskeleton networks, induce ubiqitin proteasome pathway (UPP) disorders. Particularly in tumors, the responses cover a much broader panel of cellular processes, including signalling (e.g., cell death), transport (in particular of iron ions) and migration. A common pathway to be up-regulated in both tumors and cell lines is the "unfolded protein response". Notably, VACV GLV-1h68 affected the anti-apoptosis pathways in GI-101A and PC-3 cancer cells but not in HT-29 xenografts. For example, GI-101A xenografts in mice appear 12 proteins associated with anti-apoptosis function. They were found down-regulated, including tumor protein-translationally-controlled (H-TPT1), rho-GDP-dissociation inhibitor alpha (H-GDIa), ywhaq protein (M-1433T), H-PRDX4, serine/threonine-protein phosphatase-2A-catalytic subunit beta isoform PP2A (M-Ppp2cb), eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2-subunit 1 alpha-35kDa (H-eIF2), H-actinin-α1 (ACTN1 ), Annexin A1 (H-A1), annexin A5 (H-A5), Mouse albumin 1 (M-Alb1), dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase 2 (H-DDAH2). In PC-3 xenografts, anti-apoptosis expression is lesser than those in GI-101A cells, however 3 anti-apoptosis associated proteins were down-regulated such as ARP3 actin-related protein-3-homolog (H-ARP3), Human FLNA protein, Rho GDP dissociation inhibitor (GDI) alpha (H-GDIa). In contrast, in HT-29 xenografts, there are several anti-apoptosis-associated proteins that show even to be up-regulated; they mostly belong to peroxiredoxin proteins. Lesson from HT-29 had been given what various means the HT-29 cells use to escape their apoptosis fate. This suggests that VAVC GLV1h68 infection may induce unbalance of unfolded protein response (UPR) but tending to anti-apoptosis-mediated proteins and promote the destructive elements of UPR, including caspase-12 cleavage and apoptosis. Taken together in this thesis research I have tried to compare protein profiles obtained from responder cell line and from regressing solid tumors colonized by VAVC GLV-1h68 with that of non-responding tumors. I also compared these data with PC-3 prostate cell line and tumor data on intermediate responder which alter mouse protein profiling in tumors similarly to the highly efficacious GI-101A breast tumor cell line. From these comparisons I have deduced exciting protein pattern signature characteristic for a responder or distinctly different from non-responder system. Combining these few crucial genes involved with the transcriptional test data obtained by fellow graduate student at NIH a novel national designed VACV GLV-1h68 strains with enhanced efficacy in many today non-responder cancer cell lines will be available to be tested into ongoing clinical trials.
Protein folding achieves a clear solution structure in a huge parameter space (the so-called protein folding problem). Proteins fold in water, and get by this a highly ordered structure. Finally, inside a protein crystal for structure resolution, you have everywhere the same symmetries as there is everywhere the same unit cell. We apply this to qubit interactions to do fundamental physics:
in a modified cosmology, we replace the big bang by a condensation event in an eternal all-encompassing ocean of free qubits. Interactions of qubits in the qubit ocean are quite rare but provide a nucleus or seed for a new universe (domain) as the qubits become decoherent and freeze-out into defined bit ensembles. Second, we replace inflation by a crystallization event triggered by the nucleus of interacting qubits to which rapidly more and more qubits attach (like in everyday crystal growth). The crystal unit cell guarantees same symmetries everywhere inside the crystal. The textbook inflation scenario to explain the same laws of nature in our domain is replaced by the unit cell of the crystal formed.
Interacting qubits solidify, quantum entropy decreases (but increases in the ocean around). In a modified inflation scenario, the interacting qubits form a rapidly growing domain where the n**m states become separated ensemble states, rising long-range forces stop ultimately further growth. Then standard cosmology with the hot fireball model takes over. Our theory agrees well with lack of inflation traces in cosmic background measurements. We explain by cosmological crystallization instead of inflation: early creation of large-scale structure of voids and filaments, supercluster formation, galaxy formation, and the dominance of matter: the unit cell of our crystal universe has a matter handedness avoiding anti-matter.
We prove initiation of qubit interactions can only be 1,2,4 or 8-dimensional (agrees with E8 symmetry of our universe). Repulsive forces at ultrashort distances result from quantization, long-range forces limit crystal growth. Crystals come and go in the qubit ocean. This selects for the ability to lay seeds for new crystals, for self-organization and life-friendliness.
The phase space of the crystal agrees with the standard model of the basic four forces for n quanta. It includes all possible ensemble combinations of their quantum states m, a total of n**m states. Neighbor states reach according to transition possibilities (S-matrix) with emergent time from entropic ensemble gradients. However, in our four dimensions there is only one bit overlap to neighbor states left (almost solid, only below Planck quantum there is liquidity left). The E8 symmetry of heterotic string theory has six curled-up, small dimensions which help to keep the qubit crystal together and will never expand.
Mathematics focusses on the Hurwitz proof applied to qubit interaction, a toy model of qubit interaction and repulsive forces of qubits. Vacuum energy gets appropriate low inside the crystal. We give first energy estimates for free qubits vs bound qubits, misplacements in the qubit crystal and entropy increase during qubit decoherence / crystal formation. Scalar fields for color interaction/confinement and gravity are derived from the qubit-interaction field.
Protein kinase D1 deletion in adipocytes enhances energy dissipation and protects against adiposity
(2018)
Nutrient overload in combination with decreased energy dissipation promotes obesity and diabetes. Obesity results in a hormonal imbalance, which among others, activates G-protein coupled receptors utilizing diacylglycerol (DAG) as secondary messenger. Protein kinase D1 (PKD1) is a DAG effector which integrates multiple nutritional and hormonal inputs, but its physiological role in adipocytes is unknown. Here, we show that PKD1 promotes lipogenesis and suppresses mitochondrial fragmentation, biogenesis, respiration, and energy dissipation in an AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-dependent manner. Moreover, mice lacking PKD1 in adipocytes are resistant to diet-induced obesity due to elevated energy expenditure. Beiging of adipocytes promotes energy expenditure and counteracts obesity. Consistently, deletion of PKD1 promotes expression of the β3-adrenergic receptor (ADRB3) in a CCAAT/enhancerbinding protein (C/EBP)-α and δ-dependent manner, which leads to the elevated expression of beige markers in adipocytes and subcutaneous adipose tissue. Finally, deletion of PKD1 in adipocytes improves insulin sensitivity and ameliorates liver steatosis. Thus, loss of PKD1 in adipocytes increases energy dissipation by several complementary mechanisms and might represent an attractive strategy to treat obesity and its related complications.
Während der Spermatogenese finden erstaunliche Differenzierungsprozessen statt. Reguliert wird die Spermatogenese sowohl hormonell als auch durch Wechselwirkungen zwischen verschiedenen Zelltypen und der extrazellulärer Matrix. Unterteilt wird die Spermatogenese in drei funktionelle Einheiten. Die Proliferationsphase, die Meiose und die Spermiogenese. Im Laufe der Proliferationsphase gehen aus den Spermatogonien, Spermatocyten hervor, die die Meiose durchlaufen. Während der Prophase I der Meiose kommt es zur Reduktion und Rekombination des genetischen Materials, was mit charakteristischen und höchst dynamischen Bewegungsvorgängen der Telomere einhergeht. Auf die Meiose folgt die Spermiogenese, in der das genetische Material in seine „Transportform“ überführt wird und aus einer stationären, zellverbundenen Einheit ein mobiles autark funktionierendes Vehikel des genetischen Materials wird; das Spermium. Um das Verständnis dieser Vorgänge zu erweitern wurden in dieser Arbeit die Verteilungsmuster einiger Proteine in der Kernhülle von Zellen der Spermatogenese, in Hinblick auf ihre dynamische Umverteilung untersucht. Bei diesen Proteinen handelte es sich um die SUN-Domänen Proteine und das meiosespezifische Lamin C2. Die SUN-Domänen Proteine sind Teil des membrandurchspannenden LINC-Komplexes, der Komponenten des Nukleoplasma mit denen des Cytoplasma verbindet. In dieser Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass die SUN-Domänen Proteine, Sun1 und Sun2 während der Meiose exprimiert werden, und an den Anheftungsplatten meiotischer Chromosomen lokalisieren und deren dynamisches Verteilungsmuster dem Verteilungsmuster der Telomere während der Prophase I der Meiose entsprechen. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass Sun1 und Sun2 eine tragende Rolle, während der koordinierten Bewegungsprozessen der Prophase I der Meiose spielen. In der Spermiogenese sind die SUN-Domänen Proteine, Sun1 und Sun3 vertreten. Dabei weist deren unterschiedliche Lokalisation an entgegengesetzten Zellpolen darauf hin, dass Sun1 und Sun3 möglicherweise unterschiedliche Funktionen bei der Umgestaltung des Spermienkopfes während der Spermiogenese erfüllen. Ein weiterer Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit war die Etablierung einer Mauslinie um die Rolle von Lamin C2 in der Meiose untersuchen zu können. Hierzu wurde eine Lamin C2 Knock-out Studie begonnen. In ersten Untersuchungen der knock-out Tiere konnte eine Größenreduktion der Hoden beobachtet werden. Ebenso konnte ein Abbruch der Meiose vermerkt werden. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit verdeutlichen, dass sowohl die SUN-Domänen Proteine, als auch Lamin C2, wichtige Rollen in dem komplexen Arrangement der Spermatogenese übernehmen.
Accumulating evidences have assigned a central role to parasite-derived proteins in immunomodulation. Here, we report on the proteomic identification and characterization of immunomodulatory excretory-secretory (ES) products from the metacestode larva (tetrathyridium) of the tapeworm Mesocestoides corti (syn. M. vogae). We demonstrate that ES products but not larval homogenates inhibit the stimuli-driven release of the pro-inflammatory, Th1-inducing cytokine IL-12p70 by murine bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs). Within the ES fraction, we biochemically narrowed down the immunosuppressive activity to glycoproteins since active components were lipid-free, but sensitive to heat- and carbohydrate-treatment. Finally, using bioassay-guided chromatographic analyses assisted by comparative proteomics of active and inactive fractions of the ES products, we defined a comprehensive list of candidate proteins released by M. corti tetrathyridia as potential suppressors of DC functions. Our study provides a comprehensive library of somatic and ES products and highlight some candidate parasite factors that might drive the subversion of DC functions to facilitate the persistence of M. corti tetrathyridia in their hosts.
Observations on captive reed frogs Hyperolius viridijlavus ommatostictus showed that seven out of 24 females changed into males. Sex change occurred without any hormone treatment and resulted in completely functional males. The adaptive value is discussed in terms of maximizing life-time reproductive success. Hyperolius r. ommatostictus is the first amphibian known to show functional sex reversal.
Pseudosexual behaviour is a rare phenomenon associated with unisexuality in vertebrates. In the gynogenetic, all-female teleost Poecilia formosa, rare individuals occur that resemble males of closely related gonochoristic species both in behaviour and external morphology. These masculinized gynogens and normal gynogens are members of the same clone, as demonstrated by DNA-fingerprinting. The behaviour of these masculinized gynogens is described and compared to the behaviour of the gonochoristic species Poecilia mexicana, P. latipinna and their hybrid as weil as androgen-treated individuals of P. formosa. No statistically significant difTerences were found between masculinized gynogens and hormonetreated individuals nor between the gonochoristic P. mexicana and P. latipinna males. Differences exist between gonochoristic and unisexual species. Passihle causes and effects of masculinized gynogens are discussed.
Pseudotropheus hajomaylandi (loc. typ. Isle of Chisumulu, Lake Malawi) is described as a new species. It is compared with Ps. aurora, Ps. greshakei, Ps. livingstonii, Ps. lombardoi, and Ps. zebra. All these taxa, including Ps. hajomaylandi and Ps. heteropictus, are classified in the subgenus Maylandia.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Untersuchung der psychischen Befindlichkeit und anderer gesundheitsbezogenen Konditionen der Frauen und Männer mit familiären Mamma- und Ovarialkarzinomrisiko sowie die Klärung hinsichtlich der Bewältigung und Auswirkung genetischer Risikoinformation. Es wurden Risikowahrnehmung, Informationsstand, Inanspruchnahme der Beratungsangebote sowie der Früherkennungsmaßnahmen, Einstellung gegenüber genetischer Brustkrebsdiagnostik und familiärer/sozialer Kommunikation untersucht. Die vollständig ausgefüllten Fragebögen von Ratsuchenden und Betroffenen, die an der Beratung und Befragung im Zentrum für „Familiären Brust-/Eierstockkrebs“ teilgenommen haben, wurden von uns ausgewertet. Für die beratenden Institutionen ist das Wissen der vielfältigen psychischen und sozialen Folgen bei den Testsuchenden und deren Familien sehr wichtig. Nur so kann das Betreuungskonzept und das Beratungsangebot verbessert werden.
Background
Despite advances in treatment of patients with non-small cell lung cancer, carriers of certain genetic alterations are prone to failure. One such factor frequently mutated, is the tumor suppressor PTEN. These tumors are supposed to be more resistant to radiation, chemo- and immunotherapy.
Results
We demonstrate that loss of PTEN led to altered expression of transcriptional programs which directly regulate therapy resistance, resulting in establishment of radiation resistance. While PTEN-deficient tumor cells were not dependent on DNA-PK for IR resistance nor activated ATR during IR, they showed a significant dependence for the DNA damage kinase ATM. Pharmacologic inhibition of ATM, via KU-60019 and AZD1390 at non-toxic doses, restored and even synergized with IR in PTEN-deficient human and murine NSCLC cells as well in a multicellular organotypic ex vivo tumor model.
Conclusion
PTEN tumors are addicted to ATM to detect and repair radiation induced DNA damage. This creates an exploitable bottleneck. At least in cellulo and ex vivo we show that low concentration of ATM inhibitor is able to synergise with IR to treat PTEN-deficient tumors in genetically well-defined IR resistant lung cancer models.
Several exoproteins from Listeria monocytogenes serovar 4b (NCTC 10527) and Listeria ivanovii (ATCC) 19119, SLCC 2379), respectively, have been purified to homogeneity by thiol-disulfide exchange chromatography and gel filtration. Both strains produce a haemolytic/cytolytic protein of Mr 58 kDa, which has all the properties of a SH-activated cytolysin, the prototype of which is streptolysin 0 (SLO), and this protein has therefore heen termed Iisteriolysin 0 (LLO). In addition a protein of Mr 24 kDa from culture supernatants of L. ivanovii co-purified withLLO. The N-terminal aminoacid sequences of both proteins from L. ivanovii have been determined. By mutagenesis with transposons of Gram-positive origin (Tn916 and TnI545), which have been introduced via conjugation into L. ivanovii, several phenotypic mutants (altered haemolysis on sheep blood agar or lecithinase-negative) were obtained. Results on the properties of these muntants will he presented.
Certain pathogenic bacteria adopt an intracellular lifestyle and proliferate in eukaryotic host cells. The intracellular niche protects the bacteria from cellular and humoral components of the mammalian immune system, and at the same time, allows the bacteria to gain access to otherwise restricted nutrient sources. Yet, intracellular protection and access to nutrients comes with a price, i.e., the bacteria need to overcome cell-autonomous defense mechanisms, such as the bactericidal endocytic pathway. While a few bacteria rupture the early phagosome and escape into the host cytoplasm, most intracellular pathogens form a distinct, degradation-resistant and replication-permissive membranous compartment. Intracellular bacteria that form unique pathogen vacuoles include Legionella, Mycobacterium, Chlamydia, Simkania, and Salmonella species. In order to understand the formation of these pathogen niches on a global scale and in a comprehensive and quantitative manner, an inventory of compartment-associated host factors is required. To this end, the intact pathogen compartments need to be isolated, purified and biochemically characterized. Here, we review recent progress on the isolation and purification of pathogen-modified vacuoles and membranes, as well as their proteomic characterization by mass spectrometry and different validation approaches. These studies provide the basis for further investigations on the specific mechanisms of pathogen-driven compartment formation.
A chromatographic procedure 1 is described by means of which cytochrome oxidase has been purified from a variety of organisms including the fungus N eurospora crassa,2,3 the unicellular alga Po/ytoma mirum, 4 the insect Locusta migratoria ,5 the frog Xenopus muel/eri,4 and the mammal Rattus norwegicus. 4 This procedure can be used to equal effect for large-scale preparations, starting from grams of mitochondrial protein, or for small-scale preparations starting from milligrams. The cytochrome oxidase preparations from the different organisms are enzymically active. They show similar subunit compositions.
Radioactive amino acids were incorporated into isolated mitochondria from Neurospora crassa. Then the mitochondrial ribosomes were isolated and submitted to density gradient centrifugation. A preferential labelling of polysomes was observed. However, when the mitochondrial suspension was treated with puromycin after amino acid incorporation, no radioactivity could be detected in either the monosomes or the polysomes. The conclusion is drawn that isolated mitochondria under these conditions do not incorporate significant amounts of amino acids into proteins of their ribosomes.
Werben und Drohen gehören zu den Verhaltensweisen mit Mitteilungswert, die besonders häufig - im Dienste ihrer SignalIunktion umgestaltet - zu Auslösern werden. Solche Auslöser, seien es nun besondere Bewegungsweisen und/oder spezielle morphologische Strukturen, sind an das Individuum gebunden. Eine optische Werbung oder ein Drohen mit körperfremden Mitteln, stellvertretend für ein Individuum, galt bislang als Privileg des Menschen. Die folgenden Ausführungen werden aber zeigen, daß auch andere Lebewesen derartige "Aushängeschilder" gebrauchen.
Quantifying protein densities on cell membranes using super-resolution optical fluctuation imaging
(2017)
Quantitative approaches for characterizing molecular organization of cell membrane molecules under physiological and pathological conditions profit from recently developed super-resolution imaging techniques. Current tools employ statistical algorithms to determine clusters of molecules based on single-molecule localization microscopy (SMLM) data. These approaches are limited by the ability of SMLM techniques to identify and localize molecules in densely populated areas and experimental conditions of sample preparation and image acquisition. We have developed a robust, model-free, quantitative clustering analysis to determine the distribution of membrane molecules that excels in densely labeled areas and is tolerant to various experimental conditions, i.e. multiple-blinking or high blinking rates. The method is based on a TIRF microscope followed by a super-resolution optical fluctuation imaging (SOFI) analysis. The effectiveness and robustness of the method is validated using simulated and experimental data investigating nanoscale distribution of CD4 glycoprotein mutants in the plasma membrane of T cells.
Quantitation of Glucocorticoid Receptor DNA-Binding Dynamics by Single-Molecule Microscopy and FRAP
(2014)
Recent advances in live cell imaging have provided a wealth of data on the dynamics of transcription factors. However, a consistent quantitative description of these dynamics, explaining how transcription factors find their target sequences in the vast amount of DNA inside the nucleus, is still lacking. In the present study, we have combined two quantitative imaging methods, single-molecule microscopy and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching, to determine the mobility pattern of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), two ligand-activated transcription factors. For dexamethasone-activated GR, both techniques showed that approximately half of the population is freely diffusing, while the remaining population is bound to DNA. Of this DNA-bound population about half the GRs appeared to be bound for short periods of time (similar to 0.7 s) and the other half for longer time periods (similar to 2.3 s). A similar pattern of mobility was seen for the MR activated by aldosterone. Inactive receptors (mutant or antagonist-bound receptors) show a decreased DNA binding frequency and duration, but also a higher mobility for the diffusing population. Likely, very brief (<= 1 ms) interactions with DNA induced by the agonists underlie this difference in diffusion behavior. Surprisingly, different agonists also induce different mobilities of both receptors, presumably due to differences in ligand-induced conformational changes and receptor complex formation. In summary, our data provide a consistent quantitative model of the dynamics of GR and MR, indicating three types of interactions with DNA, which fit into a model in which frequent low-affinity DNA binding facilitates the search for high-affinity target sequences.
The plasma membrane is one of the most thoroughly studied and at the same time most complex, diverse, and least understood cellular structures. Its function is determined by the molecular composition as well as the spatial arrangement of its components. Even after decades of extensive membrane research and the proposal of dozens of models and theories, the structural organization of plasma membranes remains largely unknown. Modern imaging tools such as super-resolution fluorescence microscopy are one of the most efficient techniques in life sciences and are widely used to study the spatial arrangement and quantitative behavior of biomolecules in fixed and living cells. In this work, direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM) was used to investigate the structural distribution of mem-brane components with virtually molecular resolution. Key issues are different preparation and staining strategies for membrane imaging as well as localization-based quantitative analyses of membrane molecules.
An essential precondition for the spatial and quantitative analysis of membrane components is the prevention of photoswitching artifacts in reconstructed localization microscopy images. Therefore, the impact of irradiation intensity, label density and photoswitching behavior on the distribution of plasma membrane and mitochondrial membrane proteins in dSTORM images was investigated. It is demonstrated that the combination of densely labeled plasma membranes and inappropriate photoswitching rates induces artificial membrane clusters. Moreover, inhomogeneous localization distributions induced by projections of three-dimensional membrane structures such as microvilli and vesicles are prone to generate artifacts in images of biological membranes. Alternative imaging techniques and ways to prevent artifacts in single-molecule localization microscopy are presented and extensively discussed.
Another central topic addresses the spatial organization of glycosylated components covering the cell membrane. It is shown that a bioorthogonal chemical reporter system consisting of modified monosaccharide precursors and organic fluorophores can be used for specific labeling of membrane-associated glycoproteins and –lipids. The distribution of glycans was visualized by dSTORM showing a homogeneous molecule distribution on different mammalian cell lines without the presence of clusters. An absolute number of around five million glycans per cell was estimated and the results show that the combination of metabolic labeling, click chemistry, and single-molecule localization microscopy can be efficiently used to study cell surface glycoconjugates.
In a third project, dSTORM was performed to investigate low-expressing receptors on cancer cells which can act as targets in personalized immunotherapy. Primary multiple myeloma cells derived from the bone marrow of several patients were analyzed for CD19 expression as potential target for chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-modified T cells. Depending on the patient, 60–1,600 CD19 molecules per cell were quantified and functional in vitro tests demonstrate that the threshold for CD19 CAR T recognition is below 100 CD19 molecules per target cell. Results are compared with flow cytometry data, and the important roles of efficient labeling and appropriate control experiments are discussed.
In our analysis I was interested in the gene duplications, with focus on in-paralogs. In-paralogs are gene duplicates which arose after species split. Here I analysed the in-paralogs quantitatively, as well as qualitatively. For quantitative analysis genomes of 21 species were taken. Most of them have vastly different lifestyles with maximum evolutionary distance between them 1100 million years. Species included mammals, fish, insects and worm, plus some other chordates. All the species were pairwised analysed by the Inparanoid software, and in-paralogs matrix were built representing number of in-paralogs in all vs. all manner. Based on the in-paralogs matrix I tried to reconstruct the evolutionary tree using in-paralog numbers as evolutionary distance. If all 21 species were used the resulting tree was very far from real one: a lot of species were misplaced. However if the number was reduced to 12, all of the species were placed correctly with only difference being wrong insect and fish clusters switched. Then to in-paralogs matrix the neighbour-net algorithm was applied. The resulting "net" tree showed the species with fast or slow duplications rates compared to the others. We could identify species with very high or very low duplications frequencies and it correlates with known occurrences of the whole genome duplications. As the next step I built the graphs for every single species showing the correlation between their in-paralogs number and evolutionary distance. As we have 21 species, graph for every species is built using 20 points. Coordinates of the points are set using the evolutionary distance to that particular species and in-paralogs number. In mammals with increasing the distance from speciation the in-paralogs number also increased, however not in linear fashion. In fish and insects the graph close to zero is just the same in mammals' case. However, after reaching the evolutionary distances more than 800 million years the number of inparalogs is beginning to decrease. We also made a simulation of gene duplications for all 21 species and all the splits according to the fossil and molecular clock data from literature. In our simulation duplication frequency was minimal closer to the past and maximum in the near-present time. Resulting curves had the same shape the experimental data ones. In case of fish and insect for simulation the duplication rate coefficient even had to be set negative in order to repeat experimental curve shape. To the duplication rate coefficient in our simulation contribute 2 criteria: gene duplications and gene losses. As gene duplication is stochastical process it should always be a constant. So the changing in the coefficient should be solely explained by the increasing gene loss of old genes. The processes are explained by the evolution model with high gene duplication and loss ratio. The drop in number of in-paralogs is probably due to the BLAST algorithm. It is observed in comparing highly divergent species and BLAST cannot find the orthologs so precisely anymore. In the second part of my work I concentrated more on the specific function of inparalogs. Because such analysis is time-consuming it could be done on the limited number species. Here I used three insects: Drosophila melanogaster (fruit y), Anopheles gambiae (mosquito) and Apis mellifera (honeybee). After Inparnoid analyses and I listed the cluster of orthologs. Functional analyses of all listed genes were done using GO annotations and also KEGG PATHWAY database. We found, that the gene duplication pattern is unique for each species and that this uniqueness is rejected through the differences in functional classes of duplicated genes. The preferences for some classes reject the evolutionary trends of the last 350 million years and allow assumptions on the role of those genes duplications in the lifestyle of species. Furthermore, the observed gene duplications allowed me to find connections between genomic changes and their phenotypic manifestations. For example I found duplications within carbohydrate metabolism rejecting feed pattern adaptation, within photo- and olfactory-receptors indicating sensing adaptation and within troponin indicating adaptations in the development. Despite these species specific differences, found high correlations between the independently duplicated genes between the species. This might hint for a "pool" of genes preferentially duplicated. Taken together, the observed duplication patterns reject the adaptational process and provide us another link to the field of genomic zoology.
Developmental differentiation is a universal biological process that allows cells to adapt to different environments to perform specific functions. African trypanosomes progress through a tightly regulated life cycle in order to survive in different host environments when they shuttle between an insect vector and a vertebrate host. Transcriptomics has been useful to gain insight into RNA changes during stage transitions; however, RNA levels are only a moderate proxy for protein abundance in trypanosomes. We quantified 4270 protein groups during stage differentiation from the mammalian-infective to the insect form and provide classification for their expression profiles during development. Our label-free quantitative proteomics study revealed previously unknown components of the differentiation machinery that are involved in essential biological processes such as signaling, posttranslational protein modifications, trafficking and nuclear transport. Furthermore, guided by our proteomic survey, we identified the cause of the previously observed differentiation impairment in the histone methyltransferase DOT1B knock-out strain as it is required for accurate karyokinesis in the first cell division during differentiation. This epigenetic regulator is likely involved in essential chromatin restructuring during developmental differentiation, which might also be important for differentiation in higher eukaryotic cells. Our proteome dataset will serve as a resource for detailed investigations of cell differentiation to shed more light on the molecular mechanisms of this process in trypanosomes and other eukaryotes.
The inheritance of the histone H3 variant CENP-A in nucleosomes at centromeres following DNA replication is mediated by an epigenetic mechanism. To understand the process of epigenetic inheritance, or propagation of histones and histone variants, as nucleosomes are disassembled and reassembled in living eukaryotic cells, we have explored the feasibility of exploiting photo-activated localization microscopy (PALM). PALM of single molecules in living cells has the potential to reveal new concepts in cell biology, providing insights into stochastic variation in cellular states. However, thus far, its use has been limited to studies in bacteria or to processes occurring near the surface of eukaryotic cells. With PALM, one literally observes and 'counts' individual molecules in cells one-by-one and this allows the recording of images with a resolution higher than that determined by the diffraction of light (the so-called super-resolution microscopy). Here, we investigate the use of different fluorophores and develop procedures to count the centromere-specific histone H3 variant CENP-A\(^{Cnp1}\) with single-molecule sensitivity in fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe). The results obtained are validated by and compared with ChIP-seq analyses. Using this approach, CENP-A\(^{Cnp1}\) levels at fission yeast (S. pombe) centromeres were followed as they change during the cell cycle. Our measurements show that CENP-A(Cnp1) is deposited solely during the G2 phase of the cell cycle.
Quantitative Trait Locus Analysis of Mating Behavior and Male Sex Pheromones in Nasonia Wasps
(2016)
A major focus in speciation genetics is to identify the chromosomal regions and genes that reduce hybridization and gene flow. We investigated the genetic architecture of mating behavior in the parasitoid wasp species pair Nasonia giraulti and Nasonia oneida that exhibit strong prezygotic isolation. Behavioral analysis showed that N. oneida females had consistently higher latency times, and broke off the mating sequence more often in the mounting stage when confronted with N. giraulti males compared with males of their own species. N. oneida males produce a lower quantity of the long-range male sex pheromone (4R,5S)-5-hydroxy-4-decanolide (RS-HDL). Crosses between the two species yielded hybrid males with various pheromone quantities, and these males were used in mating trials with females of either species to measure female mate discrimination rates. A quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis involving 475 recombinant hybrid males (F2), 2148 reciprocally backcrossed females (F3), and a linkage map of 52 equally spaced neutral single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers plus SNPs in 40 candidate mating behavior genes revealed four QTL for male pheromone amount, depending on partner species. Our results demonstrate that the RS-HDL pheromone plays a role in the mating system of N. giraulti and N. oneida, but also that additional communication cues are involved in mate choice. No QTL were found for female mate discrimination, which points at a polygenic architecture of female choice with strong environmental influences.
In this view point we do not change cosmology after the hot fireball starts (hence agrees well with observation), but the changed start suggested and resulting later implications lead to an even better fit with current observations (voids, supercluster and galaxy formation; matter and no antimatter) than the standard model with big bang and inflation: In an eternal ocean of qubits, a cluster of qubits crystallizes to defined bits. The universe does not jump into existence (“big bang”) but rather you have an eternal ocean of qubits in free super-position of all their quantum states (of any dimension, force field and particle type) as permanent basis. The undefined, boiling vacuum is the real “outside”, once you leave our everyday universe. A set of n Qubits in the ocean are “liquid”, in very undefined state, they have all their m possibilities for quantum states in free superposition. However, under certain conditions the qubits interact, become defined, and freeze out, crystals form and give rise to a defined, real world with all possible time series and world lines. GR holds only within the crystal. In our universe all n**m quantum possibilities are nicely separated and crystallized out to defined bit states: A toy example with 6 qubits each having 2 states illustrates, this is completely sufficient to encode space using 3 bits for x,y and z, 1 bit for particle type and 2 bits for its state. Just by crystallization, space, particles and their properties emerge from the ocean of qubits, and following the arrow of entropy, time emerges, following an arrow of time and expansion from one corner of the toy universe to everywhere else. This perspective provides time as emergent feature considering entropy: crystallization of each world line leads to defined world lines over their whole existence, while entropy ensures direction of time and higher representation of high entropy states considering the whole crystal and all slices of world lines. The crystal perspective is also economic compared to the Everett-type multiverse, each qubit has its m quantum states and n qubits interacting forming a crystal and hence turning into defined bit states has only n**m states and not more states. There is no Everett-type world splitting with every decision but rather individual world trajectories reside in individual world layers of the crystal. Finally, bit-separated crystals come and go in the qubit ocean, selecting for the ability to lay seeds for new crystals. This self-organizing reproduction selects over generations also for life-friendliness. Mathematical treatment introduces quantum action theory as a framework for a general lattice field theory extending quantum chromo dynamics where scalar fields for color interaction and gravity have to be derived from the permeating qubit-interaction field. Vacuum energy should get appropriately low by the binding properties of the qubit crystal. Connections to loop quantum gravity, string theory and emergent gravity are discussed. Standard physics (quantum computing; crystallization, solid state physics) allow validation tests of this perspective and will extend current results.
Many polymorphisms are linked to alternative reproductive strategies. In animals, this is particularly common in males. Ant queens are an important exception. The case of ant queen size dimorphisms has not been studied in sufficient detail, and thus this thesis aimed at elucidating causes and consequences of the different size of small (microgynous) and large (macrogynous)ant queens using the North American ant species Leptothorax rugatulus as a model system. Employing neutral genetic markers, no evidence for a taxonomically relevant separation of the gene pools of macrogynes and microgynes was found. Queens in polygynous colonies were highly related to each other, supporting the hypothesis that colonies with more than one queen commonly arise by secondary polygyny, i.e. by the adoption of daughter queens into their natal colonies. These results and conclusions are also true for the newly discovered queen size polymorphism in Leptothorax cf. andrei. Several lines of evidence favor the view that macrogynes predominantly found their colonies independently, while microgynes are specialized for dependent colony founding by readoption. Under natural conditions, mother and daughter size are highly correlated and this is also true for laboratory colonies. However, the size of developing queens is influenced by queens present in the colony. Comparing populations across the distribution range, it turns out that queen morphology (head width and ovariole number) is more differentiated among populations than worker morphology (coloration, multivariate size and shape), colony characteristics (queen and worker number per colony) or neutral genetic variation. Northern and southern populations differed consistently which indicates the possibility of two different species. The queen size dimorphism in L. rugatulus did neither influence the sex ratio produced by a colony, nor its ratio of workers to gynes. However, the sex ratio covaried strongly across populations with the average number of queens per colony in accordance with sex ratio theory. At the colony level, sex ratio could not be explained by current theory and a hypothesis at the colony-level was suggested. Furthermore, queen body size has no significant influence on the amount of reproductive skew among queens. Generally, the skew in L. rugatulus is low, and supports incomplete control models, rather than the classic skew models. In eight of fourteen mixed or microgynous colonies, the relative contributions of individual queens to workers, gynes and males were significantly different. This was mainly due to the fact that relative body size was negatively correlated with the ratio of gynes to workers produced. This supports the kin conflict over caste determination hypothesis which views microgyny as a selfish reproductive tactic.
Queen Specific Exocrine Glands in Legionary Ants and Their Possible Function in Sexual Selection
(2016)
The colonies of army ants and some other legionary ant species have single, permanently wingless queens with massive post petioles and large gasters. Such highly modified queens are called dichthadiigynes. This paper presents the unusually rich exocrine gland endowment of dichthadiigynes, which is not found in queens of other ant species. It has been suggested these kinds of glands produce secretions that attract and maintain worker retinues around queens, especially during migration. However, large worker retinues also occur in non-legionary species whose queens do not have such an exuberance of exocrine glands. We argue and present evidence in support of our previously proposed hypothesis that the enormous outfit of exocrine glands found in dichthadiigynes is due to sexual selection mediated by workers as the main selecting agents
Eine wichtige Standardtherapie in der modernen Behandlung von Krebserkrankungen ist die Strahlentherapie, in welcher Tumorzellen mittels ionisierender Strahlung geschädigt und abgetötet werden. Dabei soll die Schädigung des umgebenden Normalgewebes möglichst gering gehalten und trotzdem eine maximale Schädigung des Tumorgewebes erreicht werden. Deshalb sind neue Strategien zur Steigerung der Radiosensitivität des Tumorgewebes sehr wichtig, die es erlauben, bei gleicher Dosis eine verstärkte Strahlenantwort im Tumorgewebe zu erreichen. Hier kommen zunehmend sog. Radiosensibilisatoren zum Einsatz, die unter anderem onkogene Signalwege in den Tumorzellen inhibieren. Der PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signalweg stellt hierbei einen wichtigen Ansatzpunkt dar, da er in vielen Tumorentitäten dereguliert vorliegt und diese Signalkaskade bekanntermaßen einen Einfluss auf die zelluläre Strahlensensitivität hat. Obwohl es für diesen Signalweg schon eine Reihe von Inhibitoren gibt, für die bereits neben einer anti-proliferativen Wirkung auch ein radiosensibilisierender Effekt nachgewiesen wurde (z.B. Wortmannin und Rapamycin), machten eine geringe Spezifität, starke Nebenwirkungen und negative Rückkopplungsmechanismen im Signalweg, die die Wirkung des Inhibitors kompensieren, die Entwicklung neuer Inhibitoren notwendig. Das Imidazoquinolinderivat NVP-BEZ235 inhibiert den PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signalweg an mehreren Stellen gleichzeitig, indem es kompetitiv zu ATP das katalytische Zentrum von PI3K und mTOR blockiert. Für diesen kleinmolekularen, dualen Inhibitor gibt es bereits erste vielversprechende Forschungsergebnisse hinsichtlich einer radiosensibilisierenden Wirkung, allerdings sind die zugrunde liegenden molekularbiologischen Mechanismen noch nicht vollständig geklärt. Deshalb war das Ziel der vorliegenden Dissertation, in drei Teilprojekten mehrere Aspekte der NVP-BEZ235-induzierten Radiosensibilisierung aufzuklären: a) Einfluss des Behandlungsschemas für NVP-BEZ235 in vier Glioblastomzelllinien mit unterschiedlichem PTEN und TP53 Mutationsstatus, b) Einfluss der Sauerstoffversorgung (Hypoxie, Normoxie, reoxygeniert nach Bestrahlung) auf die strahlensensibilisierende Wirkung von NVP-BEZ235 in zwei Mammakarzinomzelllinien, c) gleichzeitige Inhibierung des MAPK Signalwegs durch AZD6244 und der PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signalkaskade durch NVP-BEZ235 in zwei Zelllinien mit unter-schiedlichem Mutationsstatus aus verschiedenen Tumorentitäten, um synergistische Effekte zu untersuchen. Um diese Fragestellungen zu beantworten, wurde im Rahmen - 142 -
der Dissertation eine Auswahl an humanen Tumorzelllinien mit unterschiedlich deregulierten Signalwegen bearbeitet. Dabei wurde die Expression von Schlüsselproteinen der MAPK/Erk und der PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signalwege analysiert und mit zellbiologischen Daten verschiedener phänotypischer Endpunkte nach Inhibitor Behandlung und Bestrahlung integriert (Proliferationsrate, klonogenes Überleben, Zellzyklusaberrationen, DNS-Schäden und -Reparatur, Zelltod und Autophagie).
Im Teilprojekt zum Behandlungsschema der NVP-BEZ235 Inhibierung und Bestrahlung konnte in vier Glioblastomzelllinien mit Behandlungsschema I (NVP-BEZ235 Behandlung 24 Stunden vor Bestrahlung) kein radiosensibilisierender Effekt hinsichtlich klonogenem Überleben nachgewiesen werden, wohingegen Behandlungsschema II (NVP-BEZ235 Behandlung 1 h vor und im Anschluss an die Bestrahlung) unabhängig vom Mutationsstatus in allen vier Zelllinien eine starke Radiosensibilisierung bewirkte. Auf molekularer Ebene war zwischen beiden Behandlungsschemata für das antiapoptotische Protein Akt ein großer Unterschied zu beobachten, welches bei Behandlung nach Schema I zum Zeitpunkt der Bestrahlung überaktiviert, nach Behandlung mit Schema II hingegen inhibiert war. Weiterhin resultierte Behandlungsschema I in einem erhöhten Anteil der Zellen in der radioresistenteren G1-Phase des Zellzyklus zum Zeit-punkt der Bestrahlung. Behandlungsschema II führte hingegen nach Bestrahlung zu einer verminderten Expression des Reparaturproteins Rad51 und damit zu verminderter DNS-Schadensreparatur und schließlich zu einem stabilen Arrest in der G2/M-Phase des Zellzyklus sowie zu verstärkter Apoptose (erhöhte Spaltung von PARP, erhöhter Anteil hypodiploider Zellen). Somit zeigen diese Ergebnisse, dass unabhängig vom PTEN und TP53 Mutationsstatus eine Radiosensibilisierung nur durch das Behandlungsschema II erreicht werden konnte. Ferner deuten die Ergebnisse der Proteinexpression darauf hin, dass durch NVP-BEZ235 ein negativer Rückkopplungsmechanismus ausgelöst wird, wodurch die PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signalkaskade 24h nach Zugabe des Inhibitors aktiviert und synergistische Effekte mit ionisierender Bestrahlung aufgehoben wurden.
Im Teilprojekt zur Abhängigkeit der NVP-BEZ235 Inhibition vom Sauerstoffgehalt wurden in den beiden Brustkrebszelllinien MCF-7 (ER-positiv) und TN MDA-MB-231 (TP53 mutiert) normoxische, hypoxische und nach Bestrahlung reoxygenierte Kulturbedingungen im Hinblick auf die Koloniebildungsfähigkeit nach NVP-BEZ235 Behandlung und Bestrahlung untersucht. Die beobachtete Radiosensibilisierung war unter allen getesteten Bedingungen auf gleichem Niveau. In beiden Zelllinien bewirkte NVP-BEZ235 eine Inhibition des antiapoptotischen HIF-1α Proteins, eine stabile Inaktivierung des PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signalweges und eine Aktivierung der Autophagie. Nach Bestrahlung waren zudem erhöhte residuale DNS-Schäden und ein stabiler Arrest in der G2/M-Phase des Zellzyklus unter allen Oxygenierungsbedingungen in beiden Zelllinien zu beobachten. Eine Apoptose Induktion (Spaltung von PARP, hypodiploide Zellen) trat nur in der TP53 wildtypischen MCF-7 Zelllinie nach NVP-BEZ235 Behandlung auf. Somit konnte in beiden Zelllinien in allen pathophysiologisch relevanten Oxygenierungszuständen eine sauerstoffunabhängige Radiosensibilisierung durch NVP-BEZ235 gezeigt werden.
Der bisher nicht erforschte Aspekt zur synergistischen Wirkung des MEK Inhibitors AZD6244 und des dualen PI3K/Akt/mTOR Inhibitors NVP-BEZ235 nach Bestrahlung wurde an der Glioblastomzelllinie SNB19 und der Lungenkarzinomzelllinie A549 anhand der Koloniebildungsfähigkeit der behandelten Zellen untersucht. Eine Behandlung mit dem MEK Inhibitor bewirkte lediglich eine moderate Radiosensibilisierung, wohin-gegen der duale PI3K/Akt/mTOR Inhibitor beide Zelllinien in stärkerem Maße sensibilisierte. Eine Kombination beider Inhibitoren resultierte bei keiner Zelllinie in einer Verstärkung der durch NVP-BEZ235 induzierten Radiosensibilisierung. Eine mögliche Erklärung für die fehlende Synergie im Bezug auf die Radiosensibilisierung können die gegensätzlichen Effekte der beiden Inhibitoren auf den Zellzyklus sein. Auf Proteinebene führte eine simultane Behandlung mit beiden Substanzen zur Inhibition beider Signalwege. Darüber hinaus war in SNB19 Zellen eine verstärkte Dephosphorylierung von Rb und ein erhöhter Anteil an G1-Phase Zellen bei kombinierter Gabe der Inhibitoren zu beobachten.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnte somit die radiosensibilisierende Wirkung von NVP-BEZ235 in Abhängigkeit vom Behandlungsschema gezeigt werden. Ferner wurde nachgewiesen, dass die Radiosensibilisierung unabhängig von der Sauerstoffversorgung sowie von den PTEN und TP53 Mutationsstatus der Tumorzellen ist. Die kombinierte Inhibition der MAPK und PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signalwege resultierte zwar in einem verstärkten zytostatischen, aber nicht in einem verstärkten radiosensibilisierenden Effekt. Da allerdings eine große Anzahl verschiedener Inhibitoren der MAPK/Erk und der PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signalkaskade verfügbar sind, sollte die kombinatorische Inhibition dieser Signalwege systematisch weiter verfolgt werden. Die vorliegende Arbeit liefert auch weitere grundlegende Erkenntnisse zu den molekularen Mechanismen der Radiosensibilisierung durch NVP-BEZ235, die auch auf Verknüpfungen und Wechselwirkungen mit anderen als den bisher bekannten Proteinen hindeuten, die für jeden Inhibitor aufgeklärt werden müssen, um eine effektive radiosensibilisierende Wirkung vorher-sagen zu können.
We identified eukaryotic translation elongation factor 1A (eEF1A) Raf-mediated phosphorylation sites and defined their role in the regulation of eEF1A half-life and of apoptosis of human cancer cells. Mass spectrometry identified in vitro S21 and T88 as phosphorylation sites mediated by B-Raf but not C-Raf on eEF1A1 whereas S21 was phosphorylated on eEF1A2 by both B-and C-Raf. Interestingly, S21 belongs to the first eEF1A GTP/GDP-binding consensus sequence. Phosphorylation of S21 was strongly enhanced when both eEF1A isoforms were preincubated prior the assay with C-Raf, suggesting that the eEF1A isoforms can heterodimerize thus increasing the accessibility of S21 to the phosphate. Overexpression of eEF1A1 in COS 7 cells confirmed the phosphorylation of T88 also in vivo. Compared with wt, in COS 7 cells overexpressed phosphodeficient (A) and phospho-mimicking (D) mutants of eEF1A1 (S21A/D and T88A/D) and of eEF1A2 (S21A/D), resulted less stable and more rapidly proteasome degraded. Transfection of S21 A/D eEF1A mutants in H1355 cells increased apoptosis in comparison with the wt isoforms. It indicates that the blockage of S21 interferes with or even supports C-Raf induced apoptosis rather than cell survival. Raf-mediated regulation of this site could be a crucial mechanism involved in the functional switching of eEF1A between its role in protein biosynthesis and its participation in other cellular processes.