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Zurzeit sterben jährlich ca. 11.000 Männer in Deutschland am Prostatakarzinom. Damit stellt dies die zweithäufigste Krebstodesursache von Männern dar. Da das Prostatakarzinom häufig asymptomatisch verläuft, wird die Erkrankung oftmals erst so spät erkannt, dass zum Zeitpunkt der Diagnose bereits eine Metastasierung stattgefunden hat. Durch metastasierende Prostatakarzinomzellen werden Lymphknoten, Knochen und Lungen befallen. Es sind zwei unterschiedliche Verbreitungsarten von metastasierenden Tumorzellen beschrieben. Zum einen kann eine Migration über Lymphgefäße erfolgen, ein Prozess der als lymphatische Metastasierung bezeichnet wird. Zum anderen können Tumorzellen über das Blutsystem im Körper zirkulieren: die hämatogene Metastasierung. In dieser Arbeit wurde die lymphatische Metastasierung der humanen Prostatakarzinomzellline PC-3 im Detail analysiert und Teilaspekte der hämatogenen Verteilung untersucht. Ausgangspunkt der Untersuchungen bildete die Vergrößerung lumbaler und renaler Lymphknoten in PC-3-Tumor-tragenden Mäusen 60 Tage nach der Implantation von PC-3-Zellen. Es wurde daraufhin der zeitliche Verlauf der Vergrößerung untersucht und festgestellt, dass sowohl das Volumen als auch die Anzahl vergrößerter Lymphknoten von Woche zu Woche nach Implantation der PC-3-Tumore zunehmen. Anschließend wurden alle vergrößerten Lymphknoten bezüglich des Vorhandenseins von metastasierenden humanen PC-3-Zellen in den Mäusen untersucht. Dies geschah mit Hilfe einer RT-PCR unter Verwendung von Primern für humanes β-Aktin. Sechs Wochen nach Implantation konnten in 90 % der vergrößerten Lymphknoten PC-3-Zellen nachgewiesen werden. Weiterhin wurde durch lentivirale Transduktion das Gen für das rot fluoreszierende Protein (RFP) in die PC-3-Zellen inseriert, wodurch eine Visualisierung dieser Zellen in der Maus ermöglicht wurde. Es konnten metastasierende PC-3-RFP-Zellen in lumbalen und renalen Lymphknoten PC-3-RFP-Tumor-tragender Mäuse nachgewiesen werden. Ebenso konnte mittels RFP gezeigt werden, dass die Lymphknotenmetastasierung in Abhängigkeit von der Lokalisation des PC-3-RFP-Tumors erfolgt. Es kam zur Metastasierung jener Lymphknoten, in deren Einzugsgebiet sich der PC-3-Tumor befand. Es wurde eine PC-3-RFP-Zellmigration zwischen lumbalen und renalen Lymphknotenmetastasen nachgewiesen und bei immunhistologischen Untersuchungen stellte sich heraus, dass PC-3-RFP-Zellen tatsächlich in lymphatischen Bahnen zwischen lumbalen und renalen Lymphknotenmetastasen migrieren. Außerdem wurde gezeigt, dass es von Woche zu Woche nach Implantation von PC-3-Zellen zu einer Zunahme der Anzahl von Lymphgefäßen in PC-3-Tumoren kommt. Die Zunahme der Lymphgefäßdichte korrelierte hierbei positiv mit der Bildung von Lymphknotenmetastasen. Es konnten weiterhin neben Lymphknotenmetastasen hämatogene Mikrometastasen in den Lungen PC-3-RFP-Tumor-tragender Mäuse beobachtet werden. Da die Haupttodesursache von Prostatakarzinompatienten in der Bildung von Metastasen liegt, ist es von herausragender Bedeutung eine effektive Therapie gegen lymphatische und hämatogene Metastasen zu entwickeln. Aus diesem Grund erlangt die onkolytische Virustherapie große Bedeutung. Deshalb wurde als zweiter Aspekt in dieser Arbeit der Einfluss des onkolytischen Vaccinia-Virus GLV-1h68 auf den Prozess der PC-3-Zellmetastasierung untersucht. Dabei konnte zunächst gezeigt werden, dass GLV-1h68 in der Lage ist, erfolgreich sowohl migrierende PC-3-Zellen als auch metastasierende PC-3-Zellen in Lymphknoten zu kolonisieren. In der Folge wurde deshalb ein möglicher Metastasen-inhibierender Effekt von GLV-1h68 untersucht. Hierbei stellte sich heraus, dass GLV-1h68 drei Wochen nach intravenöser Injektion eine signifikante Reduktion der Anzahl der für PC-3-Zellen positiven Lymphknoten bewirkt. Des Weiteren konnte ein inhibierender Effekt von GLV-1h68 auf die im Blut zirkulierenden PC-3-Zellen und auf hämatogene Metastasen in den Lungen beobachtet werden. Durch intravenöse Injektion von GLV-1h68 in PC-3-RFP-Tumor-tragenden Mäusen konnte gezeigt werden, dass es zu einer präferentiellen Virus-Kolonisierung der Lymphknotenmetastasen im Vergleich zu den Tumoren kommt. Auch nach intraperitonealer und intratumoraler Injektion von GLV-1h68 konnte eine präferentielle Virus-Kolonisierung der Lymphknotenmetastasen gezeigt werden. Darüber hinaus wurden die Lymph- und Blutgefäße von PC-3-Tumoren und Lymphknotenmetastasen analysiert. Hierbei wurde gezeigt, dass es sieben Tage nach intravenöser Injektion von GLV-1h68 zu einer signifikanten Abnahme von beiden Gefäßarten kam. Es wurde in dieser Arbeit somit gezeigt, dass GLV-1h68 in der Lage ist, sowohl lymphatische als auch hämatogene Metastasen der Prostatakarzinomzelllinie PC-3 erfolgreich zu eliminieren. Folglich dürften onkolytische Vaccinia-Viren ein vielversprechendes Therapeutikum für die Behandlung des fortgeschrittenen Prostatakarzinoms darstellen.
Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es ein besseres Verständinis der molekularen Prozesse der Melanomentstehung und Tumorprogression zu gewinnen. Hierfür wurde ein Tiermodell transgener Medakas (Oryzias latipes) verwendet, welche als stabiles Transgen das Konstrukt mitf::xmrk besitzen. Diese Fische entwickelten Pigmentzelltumore, welche für eine Microarrayanalyse herangezogen wurden. Aus diesem Microarraydatensatz wurden 11 Gene ausgewählt, welche in dieser Arbeit näher untersucht wurden. Beobachtungen haben ergeben, dass sich bei transgenen Medakas, welche Xmrk exprimieren, verschiedene pigmentierte Hauttumore entwickeln. Diese Tumore wurden je nach ihrem verschiedenen Histiotyp klassifiziert und untersucht. Um einen Eindruck zu gewinnen, wie Xmrk die Transkription verschiedener Gene, welche in der Krebsentstehung und –progression eine wichtige Rolle spielen, beeinflusst, wurden pigmentierte Hauttumore transgener Medakas, so wie zu Vergleichszwecken hyperpigmentierte Haut transgener Medakas und Lymphome und gesunde Organe von Wildtyp-Medakas, untersucht. Mit Hilfe von Real-time-PCR’s wurden die folgenden Gene untersucht: G6PC, GAMT, GM2A, MAPK3, NID1, SLC24A5, SPP1, PDIA4, RASL11B, TACC2 und ZFAND5. Dabei konnte festgestellt werden, dass die Expression der Gene GM2A, MAPK3, NID1, PDIA4, RASL11B, SLC24A5 und ZFAND5 von Xmrk beeinflusst wird, während dies für die Gene G6PC, GAMT, SPP1 und TACC2 nicht zutrifft. Im Vergleich zu gesunder Haut werden GM2A, MAPK3, PDIA4, RASL11B, SLC24A5 und ZFAND5 in Tumoren höher exprimiert. Die Gene G6PC, GAMT, NID1, SPP1 und TACC2 werden dagegen verglichen mit gesunder Haut unverändert oder niedriger exprimiert. Die Bedeutung der erhöhten Genexpression lässt sich in vielen Fällen zurzeit nur theoretisch erfassen. Eine höhere Expression von SLC24A5 beispielsweise lässt vermuten, dass ein Zusammenhang zwischen der Melaninproduktion und der Zellproliferation besteht. Die Überexpression von GM2A weist dagegen auf eine Rolle von GM2A als Tumormarker hin. Dahingegen scheint die erniedrigte Expression von GAMT und G6PC Auskunft über den veränderten Stoffwechsel in Tumoren zu geben. Um diese Ergebnisse zu bestätigen und zu entschlüsseln wie genau Xmrk die Expression der getesteten Gene beeinflusst, sind allerdings noch weitere funktionelle Studien nötig. Generell kommt man zu dem Schluss, dass die Genexpression sich in jedem Tumor unterscheidet. Daher scheint jeder Tumor seinen eigenen Evolutionsweg zu beschreiten.
Enormous amounts of data are being generated by modern methods such as transcriptome or exome sequencing and microarray profiling. Primary analyses such as quality control, normalization, statistics and mapping are highly complex and need to be performed by specialists. Thereafter, results are handed back to biomedical researchers, who are then confronted with complicated data lists. For rather simple tasks like data filtering, sorting and cross-association there is a need for new tools which can be used by non-specialists. Here, we describe CrossQuery, a web tool that enables straight forward, simple syntax queries to be executed on transcriptome sequencing and microarray datasets. We provide deepsequencing data sets of stem cell lines derived from the model fish Medaka and microarray data of human endothelial cells. In the example datasets provided, mRNA expression levels, gene, transcript and sample identification numbers, GO-terms and gene descriptions can be freely correlated, filtered and sorted. Queries can be saved for later reuse and results can be exported to standard formats that allow copy-and-paste to all widespread data visualization tools such as Microsoft Excel. CrossQuery enables researchers to quickly and freely work with transcriptome and microarray data sets requiring only minimal computer skills. Furthermore, CrossQuery allows growing association of multiple datasets as long as at least one common point of correlated information, such as transcript identification numbers or GO-terms, is shared between samples. For advanced users, the object-oriented plug-in and event-driven code design of both server-side and client-side scripts allow easy addition of new features, data sources and data types.
Prenatal stress (PS) has been shown to influence the development of the fetal brain and to increase the risk for the development of psychiatric disorders in later life. Furthermore, the variation of human serotonin transporter (5-HTT, SLC6A4) gene was suggested to exert a modulating effect on the association between early life stress and the risk for depression. In the present study, we used a 5-Htt6PS paradigm to investigate whether the effects of PS are dependent on the 5-Htt genotype. For this purpose, the effects of PS on cognition, anxiety- and depression-related behavior were examined using a maternal restraint stress paradigm of PS in C57BL6 wild-type (WT) and heterozygous 5-Htt deficient (5-Htt +/2) mice. Additionally, in female offspring, a genome-wide hippocampal gene expression profiling was performed using the Affymetrix GeneChipH Mouse Genome 430 2.0 Array. 5-Htt +/2 offspring showed enhanced memory performance and signs of reduced anxiety as compared to WT offspring. In contrast, exposure of 5-Htt +/2 mice to PS was associated with increased depressive-like behavior, an effect that tended to be more pronounced in female offspring. Further, 5-Htt genotype, PS and their interaction differentially affected the expression of numerous genes and related pathways within the female hippocampus. Specifically, MAPK and neurotrophin signaling were regulated by both the 5-Htt +/2 genotype and PS exposure, whereas cytokine and Wnt signaling were affected in a 5-Htt genotype6PS manner, indicating a gene6environment interaction at the molecular level. In conclusion, our data suggest that although the 5-Htt +/2 genotype shows clear adaptive capacity, 5-Htt +/2 mice –particularly females– at the same time appear to be more vulnerable to developmental stress exposure when compared to WT offspring. Moreover, hippocampal gene expression profiles suggest that distinct molecular mechanisms mediate the behavioral effects of the 5-Htt genotype, PS exposure, and their interaction.
Background: In a number of gram-positive bacteria, including Listeria, the general stress response is regulated by the alternative sigma factor B (SigB). Common stressors which lead to the activation of SigB and the SigB-dependent regulon are high osmolarity, acid and several more. Recently is has been shown that also blue and red light activates SigB in Bacillus subtilis. Methodology/Principal Findings: By qRT-PCR we analyzed the transcriptional response of the pathogen L. monocytogenes to blue and red light in wild type bacteria and in isogenic deletion mutants for the putative blue-light receptor Lmo0799 and the stress sigma factor SigB. It was found that both blue (455 nm) and red (625 nm) light induced the transcription of sigB and SigB-dependent genes, this induction was completely abolished in the SigB mutant. The blue-light effect was largely dependent on Lmo0799, proving that this protein is a genuine blue-light receptor. The deletion of lmo0799 enhanced the red-light effect, the underlying mechanism as well as that of SigB activation by red light remains unknown. Blue light led to an increased transcription of the internalin A/B genes and of bacterial invasiveness for Caco-2 enterocytes. Exposure to blue light also strongly inhibited swimming motility of the bacteria in a Lmo0799- and SigB-dependent manner, red light had no effect there. Conclusions/Significance: Our data established that visible, in particular blue light is an important environmental signal with an impact on gene expression and physiology of the non-phototrophic bacterium L. monocytogenes. In natural environments these effects will result in sometimes random but potentially also cyclic fluctuations of gene activity, depending on the light conditions prevailing in the respective habitat.
We review fluorescent probes that can be photoswitched or photoactivated and are suited for single-molecule localization based super-resolution microscopy. We exploit the underlying photochemical mechanisms that allow photoswitching of many synthetic organic fluorophores in the presence of reducing agents, and study the impact of these on the photoswitching properties of various photoactivatable or photoconvertible fluorescent proteins. We have identified mEos2 as a fluorescent protein that exhibits reversible photoswitching under various imaging buffer conditions and present strategies to characterize reversible photoswitching. Finally, we discuss opportunities to combine fluorescent proteins with organic fluorophores for dual-color photoswitching microscopy.
How do physico-chemical stimulus features, perception, and physiology relate? Given the multi-layered and parallel architecture of brains, the question specifically is where physiological activity patterns correspond to stimulus features and/ or perception. Perceived distances between six odour pairs are defined behaviourally from four independent odour recognition tasks. We find that, in register with the physico-chemical distances of these odours, perceived distances for 3-octanol and n-amylacetate are consistently smallest in all four tasks, while the other five odour pairs are about equally distinct. Optical imaging in the antennal lobe, using a calcium sensor transgenically expressed in only first-order sensory or only second-order olfactory projection neurons, reveals that 3-octanol and n-amylacetate are distinctly represented in sensory neurons, but appear merged in projection neurons. These results may suggest that within-antennal lobe processing funnels sensory signals into behaviourally meaningful categories, in register with the physico-chemical relatedness of the odours.
Retinoic acid pathway activity in Wilms tumors and characterization of biological responses in vitro
(2011)
Background: Wilms tumor (WT) is one of the most common malignancies in childhood. With current therapy protocols up to 90% of patients can be cured, but there is still a need to improve therapy for patients with aggressive WT and to reduce treatment intensity where possible. Prior data suggested a deregulation of the retinoic acid (RA) signaling pathway in high-risk WT, but its mode of action remained unclear. Results: The association of retinoid signaling and clinical parameters could be validated in a large independent tumor set, but its relevance in primary nephrectomy tumors from very young children may be different. Reduced RA pathway activity and MYCN overexpression were found in high risk tumors as opposed to tumors with low/ intermediate risk, suggesting a beneficial impact of RA especially on advanced WT. To search for possible modes of action of retinoids as novel therapeutic options, primary tumor cell cultures were treated in vitro with all-trans-RA (ATRA), 9cis-RA, fenretinide and combinations of retinoids and a histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor. Genes deregulated in high risk tumors showed opposite changes upon treatment suggesting a positive effect of retinoids. 6/7 primary cultures tested reduced proliferation, irrespective of prior RA signaling levels. The only variant culture was derived from mesoblastic nephroma, a distinct childhood kidney neoplasm. Retinoid/HDAC inhibitor combinations provided no synergistic effect. ATRA and 9cis-RA induced morphological changes suggestive of differentiation, while fenretinide induced apoptosis in several cultures tested. Microarray analysis of ATRA treated WT cells revealed differential expression of many genes involved in extracellular matrix formation and osteogenic, neuronal or muscle differentiation. The effects documented appear to be reversible upon drug withdrawal, however. Conclusions: Altered retinoic acid signaling has been validated especially in high risk Wilms tumors. In vitro testing of primary tumor cultures provided clear evidence of a potential utility of retinoids in Wilms tumor treatment based on the analysis of gene expression, proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis.
Background: Hybridization can have complex effects on evolutionary dynamics in ants because of the combination of haplodiploid sex-determination and eusociality. While hybrid non-reproductive workers have been found in a range of species, examples of gene-flow via hybrid queens and males are rare. We studied hybridization in East African army ants (Dorylus subgenus Anomma) using morphology, mitochondrial DNA sequences, and nuclear microsatellites. Results: While the mitochondrial phylogeny had a strong geographic signal, different species were not recovered as monophyletic. At our main study site at Kakamega Forest, a mitochondrial haplotype was shared between a “Dorylus molestus-like” and a “Dorylus wilverthi-like” form. This pattern is best explained by introgression following hybridization between D. molestus and D. wilverthi. Microsatellite data from workers showed that the two morphological forms correspond to two distinct genetic clusters, with a significant proportion of individuals being classified as hybrids. Conclusions: We conclude that hybridization and gene-flow between the two army ant species D. molestus and D. wilverthi has occurred, and that mating between the two forms continues to regularly produce hybrid workers. Hybridization is particularly surprising in army ants because workers have control over which males are allowed to mate with a young virgin queen inside the colony.
Binding of proteins to DNA is usually considered 1D with one protein bound to one DNA molecule. In principle, proteins with multiple DNA binding domains could also bind to and thereby cross-link different DNA molecules. We have investigated this possibility using high-mobility group A1 (HMGA1) proteins, which are architectural elements of chromatin and are involved in the regulation of multiple DNA-dependent processes. Using direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM), we could show that overexpression of HMGA1a-eGFP in Cos-7 cells leads to chromatin aggregation. To investigate if HMGA1a is directly responsible for this chromatin compaction we developed a DNA cross-linking assay. We were able to show for the first time that HMGA1a can cross-link DNA directly. Detailed analysis using point mutated proteins revealed a novel DNA cross-linking domain. Electron microscopy indicates that HMGA1 proteins are able to create DNA loops and supercoils in linearized DNA confirming the cross-linking ability of HMGA1a. This capacity has profound implications for the spatial organization of DNA in the cell nucleus and suggests cross-linking activities for additional nuclear proteins.
Mammalian Sun1 belongs to an evolutionarily conserved family of inner nuclear membrane proteins, which are known as SUN domain proteins. SUN domain proteins interact with KASH domain partners to form bridging complexes, so-called LINC complexes, that physically connect the nuclear interior to the cytoskeleton. LINC complexes are critical for nuclear integrity and play fundamental roles in nuclear positioning, shaping and movement. The mammalian genome codes for at least five different SUN domain proteins used for the formation of a number of different LINC complexes. Recently, we reported on the identification of everal Sun1 isoforms, which tremendously enlarges the alternatives to form functional LINC complexes. We now confirmed that Sun1 actually exists in at least seven distinct splice variants. Besides that, we observed that expression of individual Sun1 isoforms remarkably depends on the cell type, suggesting a cell type-specific adaption of Sun1 dependent LINC complexes to specific cellular and physiological requirements.
HMGA1 Proteine sind kleine, basische, Nicht-Histon Proteine, die in Lösung keine Struktur aufweisen, durch drei AT-Haken, als DNA-Bindungsmotive, gekennzeichnet sind und präferentiell an die kleine Furche der DNA binden. Als differenziell exprimierte Architekturelemente des Chromatins erfüllen sie wichtige Funktionen bei der Regulation DNA abhängiger Prozesse in Zellen und während Entwicklungsprozessen. Aberrante Expressionen führen zu Entwicklungsdefekten und Krebs. In dieser Arbeit wurde der Einfluss von HMGA1 Proteinen auf die Organisation des Chromatins untersucht. Als Modell diente dabei zunächst die Differenzierung von C2C12 Muskelvorläuferzellen. Wie in einer früheren Arbeit gezeigt wurde, ist die Herunterregulation von HMGA1a essentiell für den Eintritt von C2C12 Zellen in die Myogenese. Eine konstante Überexpression von HMGA1a-eGFP hingegen verhindert die Muskeldifferenzierung durch Beeinflussung der Expression myogenesespezifischer Gene und Etablierung einer stabilen Chromatinstruktur. Wie in der vorliegenden Arbeit herausgefunden wurde, nimmt die differenzielle HMGA1a Expression nicht nur Einfluss auf die Expression muskelspezifischer Gene, sondern auch auf die globale Zusammensetzung des Chromatins durch eine reduzierte Expression von H1 Histonen und einer aberranten Expression von HMGB1, HMGN1 und HP1 Proteinen. HMGA1a wurde zusammen mit ORC Proteinen eine Funktion bei der Definition von Replikationsursprüngen in eukaryotischen Zellen zugesprochen. ORC Proteine wurden auch als Komponenten des Heterochromatins und als Interaktionspartner von HP1α identifiziert. Hier konnte mit Hilfe von Co-Immunpräzipitationen, Pull-down Assays und Verdrängungsexperimenten gezeigt werden, dass HMGA1 ein weiterer, direkter Interaktionspartner von ORC Proteinen im Heterochromatin ist und zusammen mit HP1α kooperiert. Pull-down-, Verdrängungs- und siRNA-Experimente zeigten zudem, dass HMGA1 zwar nicht direkt mit HP1α interagiert, die Kooperation der Proteine über ORC aber dennoch wichtig für die Aufrechterhaltung der Heterochromatinsstruktur ist. Damit erweisen sich HMGA1 Proteine als wichtige Stabilisierungsfaktoren des Heterochromatins. Bislang ging man davon aus, dass HMGA1 Moleküle linear, also eindimensional, an ein DNA Molekül binden. Das Vorhandensein von drei DNA-Bindungsmotiven und die eher struktur- als sequenzabhängige Bindung an die DNA lassen vermuten, dass HMGA1 Proteine auch gleichzeitig an benachbarte DNA-Stränge, also auch dreidimensional, binden könnten. Bekräftigt wurde diese Vermutung durch die Bildung von Chromatinaggregaten in Zellen die HMGA1a-eGFP überexprimierten. Dies wurde mittels konfokaler und hochauflösender Mikroskopie (dSTORM) analysiert. Um das Potential einer DNA-Quervernetzung durch HMGA1 Proteine nachzuweisen, wurde eine neue Methode entwickelt. Mit Hilfe eines neuartigen DNA Cross-linking Assays wurde nachgewiesen, dass HMGA1 Proteine in der Lage sind, zwei individuelle DNA Stränge zu vernetzen. Zudem wurde eine neue Domäne in HMGA1 entdeckt die maßgeblich zum Cross-linking beiträgt. Elektronenmikroskopische Analysen bestätigten, dass HMGA1 Proteine in der Lage sind Kreuzungen und Schleifen in DNA Molekülen zu erzeugen. Diese Ergebnisse unterstützen die Vermutung, dass HMGA1 Proteine im Zellkern ein DNA Gerüst bilden können, das Einfluss auf die zelltypische Chromatinorganisation nimmt und dadurch DNA abhängige Prozesse beeinflusst. In wie weit eine HMGA1 induzierte DNA Quervernetzung in vivo zum Beispiel in Chromozentren von C2C12 Zellen oder in Krebszellen, in denen HMGA1 Proteine stark überexprimiert sind, eine Rolle spielen, müssen künftige Untersuchungen zeigen. In dieser Arbeit konnte also gezeigt werden, dass HMGA1 Proteine die Chromatinstruktur auf drei Ebenen organisieren können: Durch Beeinflussung der Chromatinzusammensetzung durch Veränderung der Expression von Chromatinproteinen, durch Interaktion mit anderen Architekturelementen des Chromatins und durch Organisation eines potentiellen DNA Gerüsts.
Die Apoptose der Leberzellen ist abhängig von externen Signalen wie beispielsweise Komponenten der Extrazellulären Matrix sowie anderen Zell-Zell-Kontakten, welche von einer Vielfalt und Vielzahl an Knoten verarbeitet werden. Einige von ihnen wurden im Rahmen dieser Arbeit auf ihre Systemeffekte hin unter- sucht. Trotz verschiedener äußerer Einflüsse und natürlicher Selektion ist das System daraufhin optimiert, eine kleine Anzahl verschiedener und klar voneinander unterscheidbarer Systemzustände anzunehmen. Die verschiedenartigen Einflüsse und Crosstalk-Mechanismen dienen der Optimierung der vorhandenen Systemzustände. Das in dieser Arbeit vorgestellte Modell zeigt zwei apoptotische sowie zwei nicht-apoptotische stabile Systemzustände, wobei der Grad der Aktivierung eines Knotens bis zu dem Moment stark variieren kann, in welchem der absolute Systemzustand selbst verändert wird (Philippi et al., BMC Systems Biology,2009) [1]. Dieses Modell stellt zwar eine Vereinfachung des gesamten zellulären Netzwerkes und seiner verschiedenen Zustände dar, ist aber trotz allem in der Lage, unabhängig von detaillierten kinetischen Daten und Parametern der einzelnen Knoten zu agieren. Gleichwohl erlaubt das Modell mit guter qualitativer Übereinstimmung die Apoptose als Folge einer Stimulation mit FasL zu modellieren. Weiterhin umfasst das Modell sowohl Crosstalk-Möglichkeiten des Collagen-Integrin-Signalwegs, ebenso berücksichtigt es die Auswirkungen der genetischen Deletion von Bid sowie die Konsequenzen einer viralen Infektion. In einem zweiten Teil werden andere Anwendungsmöglichkeiten dargestellt. Hormonale Signale in Pflanzen, Virusinfektionen und intrazelluläre Kommunikation werden semi-quantitativ modelliert. Auch hier zeigte sich eine gute Ubereinstimmung der Modelle mit den experimentellen Daten.
Pluripotency describes the ability of stem cells to form every cell type of the body.. Pluripotent stem cells are e.g. embryonic stem cells (ESCs), but also the so called induced pluripotent stem cells (IPS cells), that are generated by reprogramming differentiated somatic cells into a pluripotent state. Furthermore, it has been shown that spermatogonia (SG) derived from adult testes of mouse or human are pluripotent. Because of their ability to differentiate into every somatic cell type, pluripotent stem cells have a unique status in research and regenerative medicine. For the latter, they offer a valuable opportunity to replace destroyed tissues or organs. For basic research, stem cells represent a useful system to study differentiation or developmental processes that are difficult to access in the physiological situation e.g. during embryogenesis. Both applications, however, require methods that allow efficient and directed differentiation of stem cells into defined specialized cell types. This study first aims to investigate the differentiation potential of SG derived from the teleost fish medaka (Oryzias latipes). My results demonstrate that medaka SG are able to form different somatic cell types, namely adipocytes, melanocytes, osteoblasts, and neurons. This indicates that medake SG have retained a broad differentiation potential suggesting that pluripotency is not restricted to mouse and human SG but might be conserved among vertebrates. Next, I wanted to establish a differentiation method that is solely based on ectopic expression of genes known to be essential for the formation of certain somatic cell types – so called master regulators (MRs). My findings show that ectopic expression of the melanocyte-specific transcription factor mitf-m that has previously been shown to induce differentiation of medaka ESCs into pigment cells resulted in the formation of the same cell type in medaka SG. This approach could be used to generate other somatic cell types. Thus, ectopic expression of the MRs cbfa1 and mash1 in MF-SG was sufficient to induce differentiation into osteoblasts and neurons, respectively. Interestingly, these differentiation processes included the activation of genes that are expressed earlier during embryogenesis than the differentiation-inducing MR. Furthermore, my findings show that the approach of MR-induced differentiation can be transferred to mammalian stem cell systems. Ectopic expression of the neural transcription factor ngn2 was sufficient to induce efficient and rapid differentiation of neurons in mouse ESCs. This differentiation process also included the induction of genes that in vivo are activated at earlier stages that ngn2. By generating a transgenic cell line allowing induction of ectopic ngn2 expression, it was possible to obtain a relatively pure culture of functional neurons. Ngn2-induced differentiation did not require any additional signals and occurred even under pluripotency promoting conditions. Moreover, ectopic expression of ngn2 did also induce the formation of cells with neuronal morphology in IPS cells indicating that MR-induced differentiation is operative in different stem cell types. Furthermore, protein transduction of Ngn2 into mouse ESCs also resulted in a neuronal differentiation process up to the appearance of neural precursor cells. Last, my results show that MR-induced differentiation can also be used to generate other cell types than neurons from mouse ESCs. Myoblasts and macrophage-like cells were generated by ectopic expression of the MRs myoD and cebpa, respectively. Using transgenic cell lines enabling induction of MR expression it was possible to obtain mixed cultures with two different differentiation processes occurring in parallel. Altogether this study shows that ectopic expression of single genes is sufficient to induce directed differentiation of stem cells into defined cell types. The feasibility of this approach was demonstrated for different MRs and consequently different somatic cell types. Furthermore, MR induced differentiation was operative in different stem cell types from fish and mouse. Thus, one can conclude that certain genes are able to define cell fates in in vitro stem cell systems and that this cell fate defining potential appears to be a conserved feature in vertebrates. These findings therefore provide new insights in the role of MRs in cell commitment and differentiation processes. Furthermore, this study presents a new method to induce directed differentiation of stem cells that offers several advantages regarding efficiency, rapidness, and reproducibility. MR-induced differentiation therefore represents a promising tool for both stem cell research and regenerative medicine.
This study was conducted to determine the influence of different stress factors on the honeybee Apis mellifera. The investigation was motivated by previous experiments that suggested the existence of an unspecific defense mechanism causing a generalized change of flight behavior after the onset of different diseases. This mechanism is thought to impede the ability of flight bees to return to their respective colonies thereby removing the disease from the colony over time. During the last years, the existence of such a “suicidal behavior” was supported by further studies. Thus, an unnoticed, potentially highly effective defense mechanism of social insects was revealed whose spectrum of activity and physiological basics require further investigation. Suggesting that the reaction by the bees is unspecific to different diseases as well as to other potential stress factors, this study was designed to investigate the influence of pathogens, insecticides, and different brood rearing temperatures on different parameters like lifespan, foraging activity, and foraging trip duration of worker bees.
Background: Hemostasis is a critical and active function of the blood mediated by platelets. Therefore, the prevention of pathological platelet aggregation is of great importance as well as of pharmaceutical and medical interest. Endogenous platelet inhibition is predominantly based on cyclic nucleotides (cAMP, cGMP) elevation and subsequent cyclic nucleotide-dependent protein kinase (PKA, PKG) activation. In turn, platelet phosphodiesterases (PDEs) and protein phosphatases counterbalance their activity. This main inhibitory pathway in human platelets is crucial for countervailing unwanted platelet activation. Consequently, the regulators of cyclic nucleotide signaling are of particular interest to pharmacology and therapeutics of atherothrombosis. Modeling of pharmacodynamics allows understanding this intricate signaling and supports the precise description of these pivotal targets for pharmacological modulation. Results: We modeled dynamically concentration-dependent responses of pathway effectors (inhibitors, activators, drug combinations) to cyclic nucleotide signaling as well as to downstream signaling events and verified resulting model predictions by experimental data. Experiments with various cAMP affecting compounds including antiplatelet drugs and their combinations revealed a high fidelity, fine-tuned cAMP signaling in platelets without crosstalk to the cGMP pathway. The model and the data provide evidence for two independent feedback loops: PKA, which is activated by elevated cAMP levels in the platelet, subsequently inhibits adenylyl cyclase (AC) but as well activates PDE3. By multi-experiment fitting, we established a comprehensive dynamic model with one predictive, optimized and validated set of parameters. Different pharmacological conditions (inhibition, activation, drug combinations, permanent and transient perturbations) are successfully tested and simulated, including statistical validation and sensitivity analysis. Downstream cyclic nucleotide signaling events target different phosphorylation sites for cAMP- and cGMP-dependent protein kinases (PKA, PKG) in the vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP). VASP phosphorylation as well as cAMP levels resulting from different drug strengths and combined stimulants were quantitatively modeled. These predictions were again experimentally validated. High sensitivity of the signaling pathway at low concentrations is involved in a fine-tuned balance as well as stable activation of this inhibitory cyclic nucleotide pathway. Conclusions: On the basis of experimental data, literature mining and database screening we established a dynamic in silico model of cyclic nucleotide signaling and probed its signaling sensitivity. Thoroughly validated, it successfully predicts drug combination effects on platelet function, including synergism, antagonism and regulatory loops.
Background: Gene function analysis of the obligate intracellular bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae is hampered by the facts that this organism is inaccessible to genetic manipulations and not cultivable outside the host. The genomes of several strains have been sequenced; however, very little information is available on the gene structure and transcriptome of C. pneumoniae. Results: Using a differential RNA-sequencing approach with specific enrichment of primary transcripts, we defined the transcriptome of purified elementary bodies and reticulate bodies of C. pneumoniae strain CWL-029; 565 transcriptional start sites of annotated genes and novel transcripts were mapped. Analysis of adjacent genes for cotranscription revealed 246 polycistronic transcripts. In total, a distinct transcription start site or an affiliation to an operon could be assigned to 862 out of 1,074 annotated protein coding genes. Semi-quantitative analysis of mapped cDNA reads revealed significant differences for 288 genes in the RNA levels of genes isolated from elementary bodies and reticulate bodies. We have identified and in part confirmed 75 novel putative non-coding RNAs. The detailed map of transcription start sites at single nucleotide resolution allowed for the first time a comprehensive and saturating analysis of promoter consensus sequences in Chlamydia. Conclusions: The precise transcriptional landscape as a complement to the genome sequence will provide new insights into the organization, control and function of genes. Novel non-coding RNAs and identified common promoter motifs will help to understand gene regulation of this important human pathogen.
Background: Successful cooperation depends on reliable identification of friends and foes. Social insects discriminate colony members (nestmates/friends) from foreign workers (non-nestmates/foes) by colony-specific, multi-component colony odors. Traditionally, complex processing in the brain has been regarded as crucial for colony recognition. Odor information is represented as spatial patterns of activity and processed in the primary olfactory neuropile, the antennal lobe (AL) of insects, which is analogous to the vertebrate olfactory bulb. Correlative evidence indicates that the spatial activity patterns reflect odor-quality, i.e., how an odor is perceived. For colony odors, alternatively, a sensory filter in the peripheral nervous system was suggested, causing specific anosmia to nestmate colony odors. Here, we investigate neuronal correlates of colony odors in the brain of a social insect to directly test whether they are anosmic to nestmate colony odors and whether spatial activity patterns in the AL can predict how odor qualities like ‘‘friend’’ and ‘‘foe’’ are attributed to colony odors. Methodology/Principal Findings: Using ant dummies that mimic natural conditions, we presented colony odors and investigated their neuronal representation in the ant Camponotus floridanus. Nestmate and non-nestmate colony odors elicited neuronal activity: In the periphery, we recorded sensory responses of olfactory receptor neurons (electroantennography), and in the brain, we measured colony odor specific spatial activity patterns in the AL (calcium imaging). Surprisingly, upon repeated stimulation with the same colony odor, spatial activity patterns were variable, and as variable as activity patterns elicited by different colony odors. Conclusions: Ants are not anosmic to nestmate colony odors. However, spatial activity patterns in the AL alone do not provide sufficient information for colony odor discrimination and this finding challenges the current notion of how odor quality is coded. Our result illustrates the enormous challenge for the nervous system to classify multi-component odors and indicates that other neuronal parameters, e.g., precise timing of neuronal activity, are likely necessary for attribution of odor quality to multi-component odors.
The diversity of species is striking, but can be far exceeded by the chemical diversity of compounds collected, produced or used by them. Here, we relate the specificity of plant-consumer interactions to chemical diversity applying a comparative network analysis to both levels. Chemical diversity was explored for interactions between tropical stingless bees and plant resins, which bees collect for nest construction and to deter predators and microbes. Resins also function as an environmental source for terpenes that serve as appeasement allomones and protection against predators when accumulated on the bees’ body surfaces. To unravel the origin of the bees’ complex chemical profiles, we investigated resin collection and the processing of resin-derived terpenes. We therefore analyzed chemical networks of tree resins, foraging networks of resin collecting bees, and their acquired chemical networks. We revealed that 113 terpenes in nests of six bee species and 83 on their body surfaces comprised a subset of the 1,117 compounds found in resins from seven tree species. Sesquiterpenes were the most variable class of terpenes. Albeit widely present in tree resins, they were only found on the body surface of some species, but entirely lacking in others. Moreover, whereas the nest profile of Tetragonula melanocephala contained sesquiterpenes, its surface profile did not. Stingless bees showed a generalized collecting behavior among resin sources, and only a hitherto undescribed species-specific ‘‘filtering’’ of resin-derived terpenes can explain the variation in chemical profiles of nests and body surfaces fromdifferent species. The tight relationship between bees and tree resins of a large variety of species elucidates why the bees’ surfaces contain a much higher chemodiversity than other hymenopterans.
Organic farming is one of the most successful agri-environmental schemes, as humans benefit from high quality food, farmers from higher prices for their products and it often successfully protects biodiversity. However there is little knowledge if organic farming also increases ecosystem services like pest control. We assessed 30 triticale fields (15 organic vs. 15 conventional) and recorded vascular plants, pollinators, aphids and their predators. Further, five conventional fields which were treated with insecticides were compared with 10 non-treated conventional fields. Organic fields had five times higher plant species richness and about twenty times higher pollinator species richness compared to conventional fields. Abundance of pollinators was even more than one-hundred times higher on organic fields. In contrast, the abundance of cereal aphids was five times lower in organic fields, while predator abundances were three times higher and predator-prey ratios twenty times higher in organic fields, indicating a significantly higher potential for biological pest control in organic fields. Insecticide treatment in conventional fields had only a short-term effect on aphid densities while later in the season aphid abundances were even higher and predator abundances lower in treated compared to untreated conventional fields. Our data indicate that insecticide treatment kept aphid predators at low abundances throughout the season, thereby significantly reducing top-down control of aphid populations. Plant and pollinator species richness as well as predator abundances and predator-prey ratios were higher at field edges compared to field centres, highlighting the importance of field edges for ecosystem services. In conclusion organic farming increases biodiversity, including important functional groups like plants, pollinators and predators which enhance natural pest control. Preventative insecticide application in conventional fields has only short-term effects on aphid densities but long-term negative effects on biological pest control. Therefore conventional farmers should restrict insecticide applications to situations where thresholds for pest densities are reached.