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Obligate intracellular pathogenic Chlamydia trachomatis express several serine proteases whose roles in chlamydial development and pathogenicity are not completely understood. The chlamydial protease CPAF is expressed during the replicative phase of the chlamydial developmental cycle and is secreted into the lumen of the Chlamydia-containing vacuole called inclusion. How the secreted protease is activated in the inclusion lumen is currently not fully understood. We have identified human serine peptidase inhibitor PI15 as a potential host factor involved in the regulation of CPAF activation. Silencing expression as well as over expression of PI15 affected normal development of Chlamydia. PI15 was transported into the chlamydial inclusion lumen where it co-localized with CPAF aggregates. We show that PI15 binds to the CPAF zymogen and potentially induces CPAF protease activity at low concentrations. However, at high concentrations PI15 inhibits CPAF activity possibly by blocking its protease domain. Our findings shed light on a new aspect of chlamydial host co-evolution which involves the recruitment of host cell proteins into the inclusion to control the activation of bacterial proteases like CPAF that are important for the normal development of Chlamydia.
Ras genes are among the most commonly mutated genes in human cancer; yet our understanding of their oncogenic activity at the molecular mechanistic level is incomplete. To identify downstream events that mediate ras-induced cellular transformation in vivo, we analyzed global microRNA expression in three different models of Ras-induction and tumor formation in zebrafish. Six microRNAs were found increased in Ras-induced melanoma, glioma and in an inducible model of ubiquitous Ras expression. The upregulation of the microRNAs depended on the activation of the ERK and AKT pathways and to a lesser extent, on mTOR signaling. Two Ras-induced microRNAs (miR-146a and 193a) target Jmjd6, inducing downregulation of its mRNA and protein levels at the onset of Ras expression during melanoma development. However, at later stages of melanoma progression, jmjd6 levels were found elevated. The dynamic of Jmjd6 levels during progression of melanoma in the zebrafish model suggests that upregulation of the microRNAs targeting Jmjd6 may be part of an anti-cancer response. Indeed, triple transgenic fish engineered to express a microRNA-resistant Jmjd6 from the onset of melanoma have increased tumor burden, higher infiltration of leukocytes and shorter melanoma-free survival. Increased JMJD6 expression is found in several human cancers, including melanoma, suggesting that the up-regulation of Jmjd6 is a critical event in tumor progression.
The following link has been created to allow review of record GSE37015: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/query/acc.cgi?token=jjcrbiuicyyqgpc&acc=GSE37015.
Apoptosis is a physiological cell death process essential for development, tissue homeostasis, and for immune defense of multicellular animals. Inhibitors of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) regulate apoptosis in response to various cellular assaults. Using both genetic and pharmacological approaches we demonstrate here that the IAPs not only support opportunistic survival of intracellular human pathogens like Chlamydia pneumoniae but also control plasticity of iNOS+ M1 macrophage during the course of infection and render them refractory for immune stimulation. Treatment of Th1 primed macrophages with birinapant (IAP-specific antagonist) inhibited NO generation and relevant proteins involved in innate immune signaling. Accordingly, birinapant promoted hypoxia, angiogenesis, and tumor-induced M2 polarization of iNOS+ M1 macrophages. Interestingly, birinapant-driven changes in immune signaling were accompanied with changes in the expression of various proteins involved in the metabolism, and thus revealing the new role of IAPs in immune metabolic reprogramming in committed macrophages. Taken together, our study reveals the significance of IAP targeting approaches (Smac mimetic compounds) for the management of infectious and inflammatory diseases relying on macrophage plasticity.
Forest biodiversity conservation requires precise, area-wide information on the abundance and distribution of key habitat structures at multiple spatial scales. We combined airborne laser scanning (ALS) data with color-infrared (CIR) aerial imagery for identifying individual tree characteristics and quantifying multi-scale habitat requirements using the example of the three-toed woodpecker (Picoides tridactylus) (TTW) in the Bavarian Forest National Park (Germany). This bird, a keystone species of boreal and mountainous forests, is highly reliant on bark beetles dwelling in dead or dying trees. While previous studies showed a positive relationship between the TTW presence and the amount of deadwood as a limiting resource, we hypothesized a unimodal response with a negative effect of very high deadwood amounts and tested for effects of substrate quality. Based on 104 woodpecker presence or absence locations, habitat selection was modelled at four spatial scales reflecting different woodpecker home range sizes. The abundance of standing dead trees was the most important predictor, with an increase in the probability of TTW occurrence up to a threshold of 44–50 dead trees per hectare, followed by a decrease in the probability of occurrence. A positive relationship with the deadwood crown size indicated the importance of fresh deadwood. Remote sensing data allowed both an area-wide prediction of species occurrence and the derivation of ecological threshold values for deadwood quality and quantity for more informed conservation management.
The HECT-type ubiquitin ligase HECT, UBA and WWE Domain Containing 1, (HUWE1) regulates key cancer-related pathways, including the Myc oncogene. It affects cell proliferation, stress and immune signaling, mitochondria homeostasis, and cell death. HUWE1 is evolutionarily conserved from Caenorhabditis elegance to Drosophila melanogaster and Humans. Here, we report that the Drosophila ortholog, dHUWE1 (CG8184), is an essential gene whose loss results in embryonic lethality and whose tissue-specific disruption establishes its regulatory role in larval salivary gland development. dHUWE1 is essential for endoreplication of salivary gland cells and its knockdown results in the inability of these cells to replicate DNA. Remarkably, dHUWE1 is a survival factor that prevents premature activation of JNK signaling, thus preventing the disintegration of the salivary gland, which occurs physiologically during pupal stages. This function of dHUWE1 is general, as its inhibitory effect is observed also during eye development and at the organismal level. Epistatic studies revealed that the loss of dHUWE1 is compensated by dMyc proeitn expression or the loss of dmP53. dHUWE1 is therefore a conserved survival factor that regulates organ formation during Drosophila development.
Aspergillus fumigatus is a saprophytic, cosmopolitan fungus that attacks patients with a weak immune system. A rational solution against fungal infection aims to manipulate fungal metabolism or to block enzymes essential for Aspergillus survival. Here we discuss and compare different bioinformatics approaches to analyze possible targeting strategies on fungal-unique pathways. For instance, phylogenetic analysis reveals fungal targets, while domain analysis allows us to spot minor differences in protein composition between the host and fungi. Moreover, protein networks between host and fungi can be systematically compared by looking at orthologs and exploiting information from host–pathogen interaction databases. Further data—such as knowledge of a three-dimensional structure, gene expression data, or information from calculated metabolic fluxes—refine the search and rapidly put a focus on the best targets for antimycotics. We analyzed several of the best targets for application to structure-based drug design. Finally, we discuss general advantages and limitations in identification of unique fungal pathways and protein targets when applying bioinformatics tools.
Background:
In previous studies, the gram-positive firmicute genus Paenibacillus was found with significant abundances in nests of wild solitary bees. Paenibacillus larvae is well-known for beekeepers as a severe pathogen causing the fatal honey bee disease American foulbrood, and other members of the genus are either secondary invaders of European foulbrood or considered a threat to honey bees. We thus investigated whether Paenibacillus is a common bacterium associated with various wild bees and hence poses a latent threat to honey bees visiting the same flowers.
Results:
We collected 202 samples from 82 individuals or nests of 13 bee species at the same location and screened each for Paenibacillus using high-throughput sequencing-based 16S metabarcoding. We then isolated the identified strain Paenibacillus MBD-MB06 from a solitary bee nest and sequenced its genome. We did find conserved toxin genes and such encoding for chitin-binding proteins, yet none specifically related to foulbrood virulence or chitinases. Phylogenomic analysis revealed a closer relationship to strains of root-associated Paenibacillus rather than strains causing foulbrood or other accompanying diseases. We found anti-microbial evidence within the genome, confirmed by experimental bioassays with strong growth inhibition of selected fungi as well as gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.
Conclusions:
The isolated wild bee associate Paenibacillus MBD-MB06 is a common, but irregularly occurring part of wild bee microbiomes, present on adult body surfaces and guts and within nests especially in megachilids. It was phylogenetically and functionally distinct from harmful members causing honey bee colony diseases, although it shared few conserved proteins putatively toxic to insects that might indicate ancestral predisposition for the evolution of insect pathogens within the group. By contrast, our strain showed anti-microbial capabilities and the genome further indicates abilities for chitin-binding and biofilm-forming, suggesting it is likely a useful associate to avoid fungal penetration of the bee cuticula and a beneficial inhabitant of nests to repress fungal threats in humid and nutrient-rich environments of wild bee nests.
Bees receive nectar and pollen as reward for pollinating plants. Pollen of different plant species varies widely in nutritional composition. In order to select pollen of appropriate nutritional quality, bees would benefit if they could distinguish different pollen types. Whether they rely on visual, olfactory and/or chemotactile cues to distinguish between different pollen types, has however been little studied. In this study, we examined whether and how Apis mellifera workers differentiate between almond and apple pollen. We used differential proboscis extension response conditioning with olfactory and chemotactile stimulation, in light and darkness, and in summer and winter bees. We found that honeybees were only able to differentiate between different pollen types, when they could use both chemotactile and olfactory cues. Visual cues further improved learning performance. Summer bees learned faster than winter bees. Our results thus highlight the importance of multisensory information for pollen discrimination.
Optogenetic manipulation of cells or living organisms became widely used in neuroscience following the introduction of the light-gated ion channel channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2). ChR2 is a non-selective cation channel, ideally suited to depolarize and evoke action potentials in neurons. However, its calcium (Ca2\(^{2+}\)) permeability and single channel conductance are low and for some applications longer-lasting increases in intracellular Ca\(^{2+}\) might be desirable. Moreover, there is need for an efficient light-gated potassium (K\(^{+}\)) channel that can rapidly inhibit spiking in targeted neurons. Considering the importance of Ca\(^{2+}\) and K\(^{+}\) in cell physiology, light-activated Ca\(^{2+}\)-permeant and K\(^{+}\)-specific channels would be welcome additions to the optogenetic toolbox. Here we describe the engineering of novel light-gated Ca\(^{2+}\)-permeant and K\(^{+}\)-specific channels by fusing a bacterial photoactivated adenylyl cyclase to cyclic nucleotide-gated channels with high permeability for Ca\(^{2+}\) or for K\(^{+}\), respectively. Optimized fusion constructs showed strong light-gated conductance in Xenopus laevis oocytes and in rat hippocampal neurons. These constructs could also be used to control the motility of Drosophila melanogaster larvae, when expressed in motoneurons. Illumination led to body contraction when motoneurons expressed the light-sensitive Ca\(^{2+}\)-permeant channel, and to body extension when expressing the light-sensitive K\(^{+}\) channel, both effectively and reversibly paralyzing the larvae. Further optimization of these constructs will be required for application in adult flies since both constructs led to eclosion failure when expressed in motoneurons.
The modulation of an animal’s behavior through external sensory stimuli, previous experience and its internal state is crucial to survive in a constantly changing environment. In most insects, octopamine (OA) and its precursor tyramine (TA) modulate a variety of physiological processes and behaviors by shifting the organism from a relaxed or dormant condition to a responsive, excited and alerted state. Even though OA/TA neurons of the central brain are described on single cell level in Drosophila melanogaster, the periphery was largely omitted from anatomical studies. Given that OA/TA is involved in behaviors like feeding, flying and locomotion, which highly depend on a variety of peripheral organs, it is necessary to study the peripheral connections of these neurons to get a complete picture of the OA/TA circuitry. We here describe the anatomy of this aminergic system in relation to peripheral tissues of the entire fly. OA/TA neurons arborize onto skeletal muscles all over the body and innervate reproductive organs, the heart, the corpora allata, and sensory organs in the antennae, legs, wings and halteres underlining their relevance in modulating complex behaviors.
The cell wall synthesis pathway producing peptidoglycan is a highly coordinated and tightly regulated process. Although the major components of bacterial cell walls have been known for decades, the complex regulatory network controlling peptidoglycan synthesis and many details of the cell division machinery are not well understood. The eukaryotic-like serine/threonine kinase Stk and the cognate phosphatase Stp play an important role in cell wall biosynthesis and drug resistance in S. aureus. We show that stp deletion has a pronounced impact on cell wall synthesis. Deletion of stp leads to a thicker cell wall and decreases susceptibility to lysostaphin. Stationary phase Δstp cells accumulate peptidoglycan precursors and incorporate higher amounts of incomplete muropeptides with non-glycine, monoglycine and monoalanine interpeptide bridges into the cell wall. In line with this cell wall phenotype, we demonstrate that the lipid II:glycine glycyltransferase FemX can be phosphorylated by the Ser/Thr kinase Stk in vitro. Mass spectrometric analyses identify Thr32, Thr36 and Ser415 as phosphoacceptors. The cognate phosphatase Stp dephosphorylates these phosphorylation sites. Moreover, Stk interacts with FemA and FemB, but is unable to phosphorylate them. Our data indicate that Stk and Stp modulate cell wall synthesis and cell division at several levels.
Approximately half of all melanoma patients harbour activating mutations in the serine/threonine kinase BRAF. This is the basis for one of the main treatment strategies for this tumor type, the targeted therapy with BRAF and MEK inhibitors. While the initial responsiveness to these drugs is high, resistance develops after several months, frequently at sites of the previously responding tumor. This indicates that tumor response is incomplete and that a certain tumor fraction survives even in drug-sensitive patients, e.g., in a therapy-induced senescence-like state. Here, we show in several melanoma cell lines that BRAF inhibition induces a secretome with stimulating effect on fibroblasts and naive melanoma cells. Several senescence-associated factors were found to be transcribed and secreted in response to BRAF or MEK inhibition, among them members of the fibroblast growth factor family. We identified the growth factor FGF1 as mediator of resilience towards BRAF inhibition, which limits the pro-apoptotic effects of the drug and activates fibroblasts to secrete HGF. FGF1 regulation was mediated by the PI3K pathway and by FRA1, a direct target gene of the MAPK pathway. When FGFR inhibitors were applied in parallel to BRAF inhibitors, resilience was broken, thus providing a rationale for combined therapeutical application.
Bee population declines are often linked to human impacts, especially habitat and biodiversity loss, but empirical evidence is lacking. To clarify the link between biodiversity loss and bee decline, we examined how floral diversity affects (reproductive) fitness and population growth of a social stingless bee. For the first time, we related available resource diversity and abundance to resource (quality and quantity) intake and colony reproduction, over more than two years. Our results reveal plant diversity as key driver of bee fitness. Social bee colonies were fitter and their populations grew faster in more florally diverse environments due to a continuous supply of food resources. Colonies responded to high plant diversity with increased resource intake and colony food stores. Our findings thus point to biodiversity loss as main reason for the observed bee decline.
Poly(A)-binding proteins (PABPs) regulate mRNA fate by controlling stability and translation through interactions with both the poly(A) tail and eIF4F complex. Many organisms have several paralogs of PABPs and eIF4F complex components and it is likely that different eIF4F/PABP complex combinations regulate distinct sets of mRNAs. Trypanosomes have five eIF4G paralogs, six of eIF4E and two PABPs, PABP1 and PABP2. Under starvation, polysomes dissociate and the majority of mRNAs, most translation initiation factors and PABP2 reversibly localise to starvation stress granules. To understand this more broadly we identified a protein interaction cohort for both T. brucei PABPs by cryo-mill/affinity purification-mass spectrometry. PABP1 very specifically interacts with the previously identified interactors eIF4E4 and eIF4G3 and few others. In contrast PABP2 is promiscuous, with a larger set of interactors including most translation initiation factors and most prominently eIF4G1, with its two partners TbG1-IP and TbG1-IP2. Only RBP23 was specific to PABP1, whilst 14 RNA-binding proteins were exclusively immunoprecipitated with PABP2. Significantly, PABP1 and associated proteins are largely excluded from starvation stress granules, but PABP2 and most interactors translocate to granules on starvation. We suggest that PABP1 regulates a small subpopulation of mainly small-sized mRNAs, as it interacts with a small and distinct set of proteins unable to enter the dominant pathway into starvation stress granules and localises preferentially to a subfraction of small polysomes. By contrast PABP2 likely regulates bulk mRNA translation, as it interacts with a wide range of proteins, enters stress granules and distributes over the full range of polysomes.
Crop diversification has been proposed as farm management tool that could mitigate the externalities of conventional farming while reducing productivity-biodiversity trade-offs. Yet evidence for the acclaimed biodiversity benefits of landscape-level crop diversity is ambiguous. Effects may strongly depend on spatial scale and the level of landscape heterogeneity (e.g. overall habitat diversity). At the same time, contrasting within-taxon responses obscure benefits to specific functional groups (i.e. species with shared characteristics or requirements) if studied at the community level. The objectives of this study were to 1) disentangle the relative effects of crop diversity and landscape heterogeneity on avian species richness across five spatial scales ranging from 250 to 3000 m radii around focal winter wheat fields; and 2) assess whether functional groups (feeding guild, conservation status, habitat preference, nesting behaviour) determine the strength and direction of responses to crop diversity and landscape heterogeneity. In central Germany, 14 landscapes were selected along independent gradients of crop diversity (annual arable crops) and landscape heterogeneity. Bird species richness in each landscape was estimated using four point counts throughout the breeding season. We found no effects of landscape-level crop diversity on bird richness and functional groups. Instead, landscape heterogeneity was strongly associated with increased total bird richness across all spatial scales. In particular, insect-feeding and non-farmland birds were favoured in heterogeneous landscapes, as were species not classified as endangered or vulnerable on the regional Red List. Crop-nesting farmland birds, however, were less species-rich in these landscapes. Accordingly, crop diversification may be less suitable for conserving avian diversity and associated ecosystem services (e.g. biological pest control), although confounding interactions with management intensity need yet to be confirmed. In contrast, enhancement of landscape heterogeneity by increasing perennial habitat diversity, reducing field sizes and the amount of cropland has the potential to benefit overall bird richness. Specialist farmland birds, however, may require more targeted management approaches.
Cryptochromes (CRYs) are a class of flavoproteins that sense blue light. In animals, CRYs are expressed in the eyes and in the clock neurons that control sleep/wake cycles and are implied in the generation and/or entrainment of circadian rhythmicity. Moreover, CRYs are sensing magnetic fields in insects as well as in humans. Here, we show that in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster CRY plays a light-independent role as “assembling” protein in the rhabdomeres of the compound eyes. CRY interacts with actin and appears to increase light sensitivity of the eyes by keeping the “signalplex” of the phototransduction cascade close to the membrane. By this way, CRY also enhances light-responses of the circadian clock.
It’s a matter of design - how pitfall trap design affects trap samples and possible predictions
(2018)
Background:
Pitfall traps are commonly used to assess ground dwelling arthropod communities. The effects of different pitfall trap designs on the trapping outcome are poorly investigated however they might affect conclusions drawn from pitfall trap data greatly.
Methods:
We tested four pitfall trap types which have been used in previous studies for their effectiveness: a simple type, a faster exchangeable type with an extended plastic rim plate and two types with guidance barriers (V- and X-shaped). About 20 traps were active for 10 weeks and emptied biweekly resulting in 100 trap samples.
Results:
Pitfall traps with guidance barriers were up to five times more effective than simple pitfall traps and trap samples resulted in more similar assemblage approximations. Pitfall traps with extended plastic rim plates did not only perform poorly but also resulted in distinct carabid assemblages with less individuals of small species and a larger variation.
Discussion:
Due to the obvious trait filtering and resulting altered assemblages, we suggest not to use pitfall traps with extended plastic rim plates. In comprehensive biodiversity inventories, a smaller number of pitfall traps with guidance barriers and a larger number of spatial replicates is of advantage, while due to comparability reasons, the use of simple pitfall traps will be recommended in most other cases.
Synaptic vesicles (SVs) are a key component of neuronal signaling and fulfil different roles depending on their composition. In electron micrograms of neurites, two types of vesicles can be distinguished by morphological criteria, the classical “clear core” vesicles (CCV) and the typically larger “dense core” vesicles (DCV), with differences in electron density due to their diverse cargos. Compared to CCVs, the precise function of DCVs is less defined. DCVs are known to store neuropeptides, which function as neuronal messengers and modulators [1]. In C. elegans, they play a role in locomotion, dauer formation, egg-laying, and mechano- and chemosensation [2]. Another type of DCVs, also referred to as granulated vesicles, are known to transport Bassoon, Piccolo and further constituents of the presynaptic density in the center of the active zone (AZ), and therefore are important for synaptogenesis [3].
To better understand the role of different types of SVs, we present here a new automated approach to classify vesicles. We combine machine learning with an extension of our previously developed vesicle segmentation workflow, the ImageJ macro 3D ART VeSElecT. With that we reliably distinguish CCVs and DCVs in electron tomograms of C. elegans NMJs using image-based features. Analysis of the underlying ground truth data shows an increased fraction of DCVs as well as a higher mean distance between DCVs and AZs in dauer larvae compared to young adult hermaphrodites. Our machine learning based tools are adaptable and can be applied to study properties of different synaptic vesicle pools in electron tomograms of diverse model organisms.
Epichloë endophytes associated with cool-season grass species can protect their hosts from herbivory and can suppress mycorrhizal colonization of the hosts’ roots. However, little is known about whether or not Epichloë endophyte infection can also change the foliar fungal assemblages of the host. We tested 52 grassland study sites along a land-use intensity gradient in three study regions over two seasons (spring vs. summer) to determine whether Epichloë infection of the host grass Lolium perenne changes the fungal community structure in leaves. Foliar fungal communities were assessed by Next Generation Sequencing of the ITS rRNA gene region. Fungal community structure was strongly affected by study region and season in our study, while land-use intensity and infection with Epichloë endophytes had no significant effects. We conclude that effects on non-systemic endophytes resulting from land use practices and Epichloë infection reported in other studies were masked by local and seasonal variability in this study’s grassland sites.
A comparative view on sex differentiation and gametogenesis genes in lungfish and coelacanths
(2018)
Gonadal sex differentiation and reproduction are the keys to the perpetuation of favorable gene combinations and positively selected traits. In vertebrates, several gonad development features that differentiate tetrapods and fishes are likely to be, at least in part, related to the water-to-land transition. The collection of information from basal sarcopterygians, coelacanths, and lungfishes, is crucial to improve our understanding of the molecular evolution of pathways involved in reproductive functions, since these organisms are generally regarded as “living fossils” and as the direct ancestors of tetrapods. Here, we report for the first time the characterization of >50 genes related to sex differentiation and gametogenesis in Latimeria menadoensis and Protopterus annectens. Although the expression profiles of most genes is consistent with the intermediate position of basal sarcopterygians between actinopterygian fish and tetrapods, their phylogenetic placement and presence/absence patterns often reveal a closer affinity to the tetrapod orthologs. On the other hand, particular genes, for example, the male gonad factor gsdf (Gonadal Soma-Derived Factor), provide examples of ancestral traits shared with actinopterygians, which disappeared in the tetrapod lineage.
After a large outbreak in Brazil, novel drugs against Zika virus became extremely necessary. Evaluation of virus-based pharmacological strategies concerning essential host factors brought us to the idea that targeting the Axl receptor by blocking its dimerization function could be critical for virus entry. Starting from experimentally validated compounds, such as RU-301, RU-302, warfarin, and R428, we identified a novel compound 2′ (R428 derivative) to be the most potent for this task amongst a number of alternative compounds and leads. The improved affinity of compound 2′ was confirmed by molecular docking as well as molecular dynamics simulation techniques using implicit solvation models. The current study summarizes a new possibility for inhibition of the Axl function as a potential target for future antiviral therapies.
Teleost fish provide some of the most intriguing examples of sexually dimorphic coloration, which is often advantageous for only one of the sexes. Mapping studies demonstrated that the genetic loci underlying such color patterns are frequently in tight linkage to the sex-determining locus of a species, ensuring sex-specific expression of the corresponding trait. Several genes affecting color synthesis and pigment cell development have been previously described, but the color loci on the sex chromosomes have mostly remained elusive as yet. Here, we summarize the current knowledge about the genetics of such color loci in teleosts, mainly from studies on poeciliids and cichlids. Further studies on these color loci will certainly provide important insights into the evolution of sex chromosomes.
By promoting ceramide release at the cytosolic membrane leaflet, the neutral sphingomyelinase 2 (NSM) is capable of organizing receptor and signalosome segregation. Its role in T cell receptor (TCR) signaling remained so far unknown. We now show that TCR-driven NSM activation is dispensable for TCR clustering and initial phosphorylation, but of crucial importance for further signal amplification. In particular, at low doses of TCR stimulatory antibodies, NSM is required for Ca\(^{2+}\) mobilization and T cell proliferation. NSM-deficient T cells lack sustained CD3ζ and ZAP-70 phosphorylation and are unable to polarize and stabilize their microtubular system. We identified PKCζ as the key NSM downstream effector in this second wave of TCR signaling supporting dynamics of microtubule-organizing center (MTOC). Ceramide supplementation rescued PKCζ membrane recruitment and MTOC translocation in NSM-deficient cells. These findings identify the NSM as essential in TCR signaling when dynamic cytoskeletal reorganization promotes continued lateral and vertical supply of TCR signaling components: CD3ζ, Zap70, and PKCζ, and functional immune synapses are organized and stabilized via MTOC polarization.
It is a common belief that feral honey bee colonies (Apis mellifera L.) were eradicated in Europe through the loss of habitats, domestication by man and spread of pathogens and parasites. Interestingly, no scientific data are available, neither about the past nor the present status of naturally nesting honeybee colonies. We expected near-natural beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forests to provide enough suitable nest sites to be a home for feral honey bee colonies in Europe. Here, we made a first assessment of their occurrence and density in two German woodland areas based on two methods, the tracing of nest sites based on forager flight routes (beelining technique), and the direct inspection of potential cavity trees. Further, we established experimental swarms at forest edges and decoded dances for nest sites performed by scout bees in order to study how far swarms from beekeeper-managed hives would potentially move into a forest. We found that feral honey bee colonies regularly inhabit tree cavities in near-natural beech forests at densities of at least 0.11-0.14 colonies/km\(^{2}\). Colonies were not confined to the forest edges; they were also living deep inside the forests. We estimated a median distance of 2,600 m from the bee trees to the next apiaries, while scout bees in experimental swarms communicated nest sites in close distances (median: 470 m). We extrapolate that there are several thousand feral honey bee colonies in German woodlands. These have to be taken in account when assessing the role of forest areas in providing pollination services to the surrounding land, and their occurrence has implications for the species' perception among researchers, beekeepers and conservationists. This study provides a starting point for investigating the life-histories and the ecological interactions of honey bees in temperate European forest environments.
Background:
The cardiac hormones atrial (ANP) and B-type natriuretic peptides (BNP) moderate arterial blood pressure and improve energy metabolism as well as insulin sensitivity via their shared cGMP-producing guanylyl cyclase-A (GC-A) receptor. Obesity is associated with impaired NP/GC-A/cGMP signaling, which possibly contributes to the development of type 2 diabetes and its cardiometabolic complications. In vitro, synthetic ANP, via GC-A, stimulates glucose-dependent insulin release from cultured pancreatic islets and β-cell proliferation. However, the relevance for systemic glucose homeostasis in vivo is not known. To dissect whether the endogenous cardiac hormones modulate the secretory function and/or proliferation of β-cells under (patho)physiological conditions in vivo, here we generated a novel genetic mouse model with selective disruption of the GC-A receptor in β-cells.
Methods:
Mice with a floxed GC-A gene were bred to Rip-CreTG mice, thereby deleting GC-A selectively in β-cells (β GC-A KO). Weight gain, glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity, and glucose-stimulated insulin secretion were monitored in normal diet (ND)- and high-fat diet (HFD)-fed mice. β-cell size and number were measured by immunofluorescence-based islet morphometry.
Results:
In vitro, the insulinotropic and proliferative actions of ANP were abolished in islets isolated from β GC-A KO mice. Concordantly, in vivo, infusion of BNP mildly enhanced baseline plasma insulin levels and glucose-induced insulin secretion in control mice. This effect of exogenous BNP was abolished in β GC-A KO mice, corroborating the efficient inactivation of the GC-A receptor in β-cells. Despite this under physiological, ND conditions, fasted and fed insulin levels, glucose-induced insulin secretion, glucose tolerance and β-cell morphology were similar in β GC-A KO mice and control littermates. However, HFD-fed β GC-A KO animals had accelerated glucose intolerance and diminished adaptative β-cell proliferation.
Conclusions:
Our studies of β GC-A KO mice demonstrate that the cardiac hormones ANP and BNP do not modulate β-cell's growth and secretory functions under physiological, normal dietary conditions. However, endogenous NP/GC-A signaling improves the initial adaptative response of β-cells to HFD-induced obesity. Impaired β-cell NP/GC-A signaling in obese individuals might contribute to the development of type 2 diabetes.
Background:
The treatment strategies for colorectal cancer located in the right side of the colon have changed dramatically during the last decade. Due to the introduction of complete mesocolic excision (CME) with central ligation of the vessels and systematic lymph node dissection, the long-term survival of affected patients has increased significantly. It has also been proposed that right-sided colon resection can be performed laparoscopically with the same extent of resection and equal long-term results.
Methods:
A retrospective evaluation of a prospectively expanded database on right-sided colorectal cancer or adenoma treated at the University Hospital of Wuerzburg between 2009 and 2016 was performed. All patients underwent CME. This data was analyzed alone and in comparison to the published data describing laparoscopic right-sided colon resection for colon cancer.
Results:
The database contains 279 patients, who underwent right-sided colon resection due to colorectal cancer or colorectal adenoma (255 open; 24 laparoscopic). Operation data (time, length of stay, time on ICU) was equal or superior to laparoscopy, which is comparable to the published results. Surprisingly, the surrogate parameter for correct CME (the number of removed lymph nodes) was significantly higher in the open group. In a subgroup analysis only including patients who were feasible for laparoscopic resection and had been operated with an open procedure by an experienced surgeon, operation time was significantly shorter and the number of removed lymph nodes is significantly higher in the open group.
Conclusion:
So far, several studies demonstrate that laparoscopic right-sided colon resection is comparable to open resection. Our data suggests that a consequent CME during an open operation leads to significantly more removed lymph nodes than in laparoscopically resected patients and in several so far published data of open control groups from Europe. Further prospective randomized trials comparing the long-term outcome are urgently needed before laparoscopy for right-sided colon resection can be recommended ubiquitously.
Protein kinase D1 deletion in adipocytes enhances energy dissipation and protects against adiposity
(2018)
Nutrient overload in combination with decreased energy dissipation promotes obesity and diabetes. Obesity results in a hormonal imbalance, which among others, activates G-protein coupled receptors utilizing diacylglycerol (DAG) as secondary messenger. Protein kinase D1 (PKD1) is a DAG effector which integrates multiple nutritional and hormonal inputs, but its physiological role in adipocytes is unknown. Here, we show that PKD1 promotes lipogenesis and suppresses mitochondrial fragmentation, biogenesis, respiration, and energy dissipation in an AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-dependent manner. Moreover, mice lacking PKD1 in adipocytes are resistant to diet-induced obesity due to elevated energy expenditure. Beiging of adipocytes promotes energy expenditure and counteracts obesity. Consistently, deletion of PKD1 promotes expression of the β3-adrenergic receptor (ADRB3) in a CCAAT/enhancerbinding protein (C/EBP)-α and δ-dependent manner, which leads to the elevated expression of beige markers in adipocytes and subcutaneous adipose tissue. Finally, deletion of PKD1 in adipocytes improves insulin sensitivity and ameliorates liver steatosis. Thus, loss of PKD1 in adipocytes increases energy dissipation by several complementary mechanisms and might represent an attractive strategy to treat obesity and its related complications.
The human body is constantly attacked by pathogens. Various lines of defence have evolved, among which the immune system is principal. In contrast to most pathogens, the African trypanosomes thrive freely in the blood circulation, where they escape immune destruction by antigenic variation and incessant motility. These unicellular parasites are flagellate microswimmers that also withstand the harsh mechanical forces prevailing in the bloodstream. They undergo complex developmental cycles in the bloodstream and organs of the mammalian host, as well as the disease-transmitting tsetse fly. Each life cycle stage has been shaped by evolution for manoeuvring in distinct microenvironments. Here, we introduce trypanosomes as blueprints for nature-inspired design of trypanobots, micromachines that, in the future, could explore the human body without affecting its physiology. We review cell biological and biophysical aspects of trypanosome motion. While this could provide a basis for the engineering of microbots, their actuation and control still appear more like fiction than science. Here, we discuss potentials and challenges of trypanosome-inspired microswimmer robots.
The honeybee olfactory pathway comprises an intriguing pattern of convergence and divergence: ~60.000 olfactory sensory neurons (OSN) convey olfactory information on ~900 projection neurons (PN) in the antennal lobe (AL). To transmit this information reliably, PNs employ relatively high spiking frequencies with complex patterns. PNs project via a dual olfactory pathway to the mushroom bodies (MB). This pathway comprises the medial (m-ALT) and the lateral antennal lobe tract (l-ALT). PNs from both tracts transmit information from a wide range of similar odors, but with distinct differences in coding properties. In the MBs, PNs form synapses with many Kenyon cells (KC) that encode odors in a spatially and temporally sparse way. The transformation from complex information coding to sparse coding is a well-known phenomenon in insect olfactory coding. Intrinsic neuronal properties as well as GABAergic inhibition are thought to contribute to this change in odor representation. In the present study, we identified intrinsic neuronal properties promoting coding differences between PNs and KCs using in-situ patch-clamp recordings in the intact brain. We found very prominent K+ currents in KCs clearly differing from the PN currents. This suggests that odor coding differences between PNs and KCs may be caused by differences in their specific ion channel properties. Comparison of ionic currents of m- and l-ALT PNs did not reveal any differences at a qualitative level.
Due to intensive agriculture honeybees are threatened by various pesticides. The use of one group of them, the neonicotinoids, was recently restricted by the European Union. These chemicals bind to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAchR) in the honeybee brain. Recently, Bayer AG released a new pesticide by the name of “Sivanto” against sucking insects. It is assumed to be harmless for honeybees, although its active ingredient, flupyradifurone, binds nAchR similar to the neonicotinoids. We investigated if this pesticide affects the taste for sugar and cognitive performance in honeybee foragers. These bees are directly exposed to the pesticide while foraging for pollen or nectar. Our results demonstrate that flupyradifurone can reduce taste and appetitive learning performance in honeybees foraging for pollen and nectar, although only the highest concentration had significant effects. Most likely, honeybee foragers will not be exposed to these high concentrations. Therefore, the appropriate use of this pesticide is considered safe for honeybees, at least with respect to the behaviors studied here.
Background:
Sex determination relies on a hierarchically structured network of genes, and is one of the most plastic processes in evolution. The evolution of sex-determining genes within a network, by neo- or sub-functionalization, also requires the regulatory landscape to be rewired to accommodate these novel gene functions. We previously showed that in medaka fish, the regulatory landscape of the master male-determining gene dmrt1bY underwent a profound rearrangement, concomitantly with acquiring a dominant position within the sex-determining network. This rewiring was brought about by the exaptation of a transposable element (TE) called Izanagi, which is co-opted to act as a silencer to turn off the dmrt1bY gene after it performed its function in sex determination.
Results:
We now show that a second TE, Rex1, has been incorporated into Izanagi. The insertion of Rex1 brought in a preformed regulatory element for the transcription factor Sox5, which here functions in establishing the temporal and cell-type-specific expression pattern of dmrt1bY. Mutant analysis demonstrates the importance of Sox5 in the gonadal development of medaka, and possibly in mice, in a dmrt1bY-independent manner. Moreover, Sox5 medaka mutants have complete female-to-male sex reversal.
Conclusions:
Our work reveals an unexpected complexity in TE-mediated transcriptional rewiring, with the exaptation of a second TE into a network already rewired by a TE. We also show a dual role for Sox5 during sex determination: first, as an evolutionarily conserved regulator of germ-cell number in medaka, and second, by de novo regulation of dmrt1 transcriptional activity during primary sex determination due to exaptation of the Rex1 transposable element.
Background:
Genetic heterogeneity and consanguineous marriages make recessive inherited hearing loss in Iran the second most common genetic disorder. Only two reported pathogenic variants (c.323G>C, p.Arg108Pro and c.419A>G, p.Tyr140Cys) in the S1PR2 gene have previously been linked to autosomal recessive hearing loss (DFNB68) in two Pakistani families. We describe a segregating novel homozygous c.323G>A, p.Arg108Gln pathogenic variant in S1PR2 that was identified in four affected individuals from a consanguineous five generation Iranian family.
Methods:
Whole exome sequencing and bioinformatics analysis of 116 hearing loss-associated genes was performed in an affected individual from a five generation Iranian family. Segregation analysis and 3D protein modeling of the p.Arg108 exchange was performed.
Results:
The two Pakistani families previously identified with S1PR2 pathogenic variants presented profound hearing loss that is also observed in the affected Iranian individuals described in the current study. Interestingly, we confirmed mixed hearing loss in one affected individual. 3D protein modeling suggests that the p.Arg108 position plays a key role in ligand receptor interaction, which is disturbed by the p.Arg108Gln change.
Conclusion:
In summary, we report the third overall mutation in S1PR2 and the first report outside the Pakistani population. Furthermore, we describe a novel variant that causes an amino acid exchange (p.Arg108Gln) in the same amino acid residue as one of the previously reported Pakistani families (p.Arg108Pro). This finding emphasizes the importance of the p.Arg108 amino acid in normal hearing and confirms and consolidates the role of S1PR2 in autosomal recessive hearing loss.
Background:
The compound eyes of insects allow them to catch photons and convert the energy into electric signals. All compound eyes consist of numerous ommatidia, each comprising a fixed number of photoreceptors. Different ommatidial types are characterized by a specific set of photoreceptors differing in spectral sensitivity. In honey bees, males and females possess different ommatidial types forming distinct retinal mosaics. However, data are lacking on retinal ontogeny and the mechanisms by which the eyes are patterned. In this study, we investigated the intrinsic temporal and circadian expression patterns of the opsins that give rise to the ultraviolet, blue and green sensitive photoreceptors, as well as the morphological maturation of the retina during pupal development of honey bees.
Results:
qPCR and histological labeling revealed that temporal opsin mRNA expression differs between sexes and correlates with rhabdom elongation during photoreceptor development. In the first half of the pupal stage, when the rhabdoms of the photoreceptors are still short, worker and (dorsal) drone retinae exhibit similar expression patterns with relatively high levels of UV (UVop) and only marginal levels of blue (BLop) and green (Lop1) opsin mRNA. In the second half of pupation, when photoreceptors and rhabdoms elongate, opsin expression in workers becomes dominated by Lop1 mRNA. In contrast, the dorsal drone eye shows high expression levels of UVop and BLop mRNA, whereas Lop1 mRNA level decreases. Interestingly, opsin expression levels increase up to 22-fold during early adult life. We also found evidence that opsin expression in adult bees is under the control of the endogenous clock.
Conclusions:
Our data indicate that the formation of the sex-specific retinal composition of photoreceptors takes place during the second half of the pupal development, and that opsin mRNA expression levels continue to increase in young bees, which stands in contrast to Drosophila, where the highest expression levels are found during the late pupal stage and remain constant in adults. From an evolutionary perspective, we hypothesize that the delayed retinal maturation during the early adult phase is linked to the delayed transition from indoor to outdoor activities in bees, when vision becomes important.
Background:
Ketogenic diets (KDs) or short-term fasting are popular trends amongst supportive approaches for cancer patients. Beta-hydroxybutyrate (3-OHB) is the main physiological ketone body, whose concentration can reach plasma levels of 2–6 mM during KDs or fasting. The impact of 3-OHB on the biology of tumor cells described so far is contradictory. Therefore, we investigated the effect of a physiological concentration of 3 mM 3-OHB on metabolism, proliferation, and viability of breast cancer (BC) cells in vitro.
Methods:
Seven different human BC cell lines (BT20, BT474, HBL100, MCF-7, MDA-MB 231, MDA-MB 468, and T47D) were cultured in medium with 5 mM glucose in the presence of 3 mM 3-OHB at mild hypoxia (5% oxygen) or normoxia (21% oxygen). Metabolic profiling was performed by quantification of the turnover of glucose, lactate, and 3-OHB and by Seahorse metabolic flux analysis. Expression of key enzymes of ketolysis as well as the main monocarboxylic acid transporter MCT2 and the glucose-transporter GLUT1 was analyzed by RT-qPCR and Western blotting. The effect of 3-OHB on short- and long-term cell proliferation as well as chemo- and radiosensitivity were also analyzed.
Results:
3-OHB significantly changed the oxygen consumption rate (OCR) and extracellular acidification rate (ECAR) in BT20 cells resulting in a more oxidative energetic phenotype. MCF-7 and MDA-MB 468 cells had increased ECAR only in response to 3-OHB, while the other three cell types remained uninfluenced. All cells expressed MCT2 and GLUT1, thus being able to uptake the metabolites. The consumption of 3-OHB was not strongly linked to mRNA overexpression of key enzymes of ketolysis and did not correlate with lactate production and glucose consumption. Neither 3-OHB nor acetoacetate did interfere with proliferation. Further, 3-OHB incubation did not modify the response of the tested BC cell lines to chemotherapy or radiation.
Conclusions:
We found that a physiological level of 3-OHB can change the energetic profile of some BC cell lines. However, 3-OHB failed to influence different biologic processes in these cells, e.g., cell proliferation and the response to common breast cancer chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Thus, we have no evidence that 3-OHB generally influences the biology of breast cancer cells in vitro.
Altersassoziierte und strahleninduzierte Veränderungen des genomweiten DNA-Methylierungs-Profils
(2018)
Der Prozess des Alterns ist ein komplexer multifaktorieller Vorgang, der durch eine sukzessive Verschlechterung der physiologischen Funktionen charakterisiert ist. Ein hohes Alter ist der Hauptrisikofaktor für die meisten Krankheiten, einschließlich Krebs und Herz-Kreislauf-Erkrankungen. Das Verständnis der epigenetischen Mechanismen, die in den Prozess des Alterns involviert sind, könnte zur Entwicklung pharmakologischer Interventionen beitragen, die nicht nur die Lebenserwartung erhöhen, sondern auch den Beginn des altersassoziierten funktionellen Abbaus verzögern könnten. Durch die Langzeit-Kultivierung primärer humaner Fibroblasten wurde ein in vitro Modell für das Altern etabliert, das die Identifizierung altersassoziierter DNA-Methylierungs-Veränderungen ermöglichte. Die in vitro Alterung konnte mit einer globalen Hypomethylierung und einer erhöhten DNA-Methylierung der ribosomalen DNA assoziiert werden. Darüber hinaus konnten DNA-Methylierungs-Veränderungen in Genen und Signalwegen, die für das Altern relevant sind, und ein erhöhtes epigenetisches Alter nachgewiesen werden.
Das in vitro Modell für das Altern wurde verwendet, um neben den direkten Effekten ionisierender Strahlung auf die DNA-Methylierung auch deren Langzeit-Effekte zu untersuchen. Die Strahlentherapie ist ein entscheidendes Element der Krebstherapie, hat aber auch negative Auswirkungen und kann unter anderem das Risiko für die Entwicklung eines Zweittumors erhöhen. Bei externer Bestrahlung wird neben dem Tumor auch gesundes Gewebe ionisierender Strahlung ausgesetzt. Daher ist es wichtig zu untersuchen, wie Zellen mit intakten DNA-Reparatur-Mechanismen und funktionierenden Zellzyklus-Checkpoints durch diese beeinflusst werden. In der frühen Phase der DNA-Schadensantwort auf Bestrahlung wurden in normalen Zellen keine wesentlichen DNA-Methylierungs-Veränderungen beobachtet. Mehrere Populations-Verdoppelungen nach Strahlenexposition konnten dagegen eine globale Hypomethylierung, eine erhöhte DNA-Methylierung der ribosomalen DNA und ein erhöhtes epigenetisches Alter detektiert werden. Des Weiteren zeigten Gene und Signalwege, die mit Krebs in Verbindung gebracht wurden, Veränderungen in der DNA-Methylierung. Als Langzeit-Effekte ionisierender Strahlung traten somit die mit der in vitro Alterung assoziierten DNA-Methylierungs-Veränderungen verstärkt auf und ein epigenetisches Muster, das stark an das DNA-Methylierungs-Profil von Tumorzellen erinnert, entstand. Man geht davon aus, dass Veränderungen der DNA-Methylierung eine aktive Rolle in der Entwicklung eines Tumors spielen. Die durch ionisierende Strahlung induzierten DNA-Methylierungs-Veränderungen in normalen Zellen könnten demnach in die Krebsentstehung nach Strahlenexposition involviert sein und zu dem sekundären Krebsrisiko nach Strahlentherapie beitragen. Es ist bekannt, dass Patienten unterschiedlich auf therapeutische Bestrahlung reagieren. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit weisen darauf hin, dass die individuelle Sensitivität gegenüber ionisierender Strahlung auch auf epigenetischer Ebene beobachtet werden kann.
In einem zweiten Projekt wurden Gesamtblutproben von Patienten mit Werner-Syndrom, einer segmental progeroiden Erkrankung, und gesunden Kontrollen analysiert, um mit dem vorzeitigen Altern in Verbindung stehende DNA-Methylierungs-Veränderungen zu identifizieren. Werner-Syndrom konnte nicht mit einer globalen Hypomethylierung, jedoch mit einer erhöhten DNA-Methylierung der ribosomalen DNA und einem erhöhten epigenetischen Alter assoziiert werden. Das vorzeitige Altern geht demzufolge mit spezifischen epigenetischen Veränderungen einher, die eine Beschleunigung der mit dem normalen Altern auftretenden DNA-Methylierungs-Veränderungen darstellen.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnte die Bedeutung epigenetischer Mechanismen im Prozess des Alterns hervorgehoben werden und gezeigt werden, dass sowohl exogene Faktoren, wie ionisierende Strahlung, als auch endogene Faktoren, wie das in Werner-Syndrom-Patienten mutiert vorliegende WRN-Gen, altersassoziierte DNA-Methylierungs-Veränderungen beeinflussen können.
I. Timing is a crucial feature in organisms that live within a variable and changing environment. Complex mechanisms to measure time are wide-spread and were shown to exist in many taxa. These mechanisms are expected to provide fitness benefits by enabling organisms to anticipate environmental changes and adapt accordingly. However, very few studies have addressed the adaptive value of proper timing. The objective of this PhD-project was to investigate mechanisms and fitness consequences of timing decisions concerning colony phenology and foraging activity in the honey bee (Apis mellifera), a social insect species with a high degree of social organization and one of the most important pollinators of wild plants and crops. In chapter II, a study is presented that aimed to identify the consequences of disrupted synchrony between colony phenology and the local environment by manipulating the timing of brood onset after hibernation. In a follow-up experiment, the importance of environmental factors for the timing of brood onset was investigated to assess the potential of climate change to disrupt synchronization of colony phenology (Chapter III). Chapter IV aimed to prove for the first time that honey bees can use interval time-place learning to improve foraging activity in a variable environment. Chapter V investigates the fitness benefits of information exchange between nest mates via waggle dance communication about a resource environment that is heterogeneous in space and time.
II. In the study presented in chapter II, the importance of the timing of brood onset after hibernation as critical point in honey bee colony phenology in temperate zones was investigated. Honey bee colonies were overwintered at two climatically different sites. By translocating colonies from each site to the other in late winter, timing of brood onset was manipulated and consequently colony phenology was desynchronized with the local environment. Delaying colony phenology in respect to the local environment decreased the capability of colonies to exploit the abundant spring bloom. Early brood onset, on the other hand, increased the loads of the brood parasite Varroa destructor later in the season with negative impact on colony worker population size. This indicates a timing related trade-off and illustrates the importance of investigating effects of climate change on complex multi-trophic systems. It can be concluded that timing of brood onset in honey bees is an important fitness relevant step for colony phenology that is highly sensitive to climatic conditions in late winter. Further, phenology shifts and mismatches driven by climate change can have severe fitness consequences.
III. In chapter III, I assess the importance of the environmental factors ambient temperature and photoperiod as well as elapsed time on the timing of brood onset. Twenty-four hibernating honey bee colonies were placed into environmental chambers and allocated to different combinations of two temperature regimes and three different light regimes. Brood onset was identified non-invasively by tracking comb temperature within the winter cluster. The experiment revealed that ambient temperature plays a major role in the timing of brood onset, but the response of honey bee colonies to temperature increases is modified by photoperiod. Further, the data indicate the involvement of an internal clock. I conclude that the timing of brood onset is complex but probably highly susceptible to climate change and especially spells of warm weather in winter.
IV. In chapter IV, it was examined if honey bees are capable of interval time-place learning and if this ability improves foraging efficiency in a dynamic resource environment. In a field experiment with artificial feeders, foragers were able to learn time intervals and use this ability to anticipate time periods during which feeders were active. Further, interval time-place learning enabled foragers to increase nectar uptake rates. It was concluded that interval time-place learning can help honey bee foragers to adapt to the complex and variable temporal patterns of floral resource environments.
V. The study presented in chapter V identified the importance of the honey bee waggle dance communication for the spatiotemporal coordination of honey bee foraging activity in resource environments that can vary from day to day. Consequences of disrupting the instructional component of honey bee dance communication were investigated in eight temperate zone landscapes with different levels of spatiotemporal complexity. While nectar uptake of colonies was not affected, waggle dance communication significantly benefitted pollen harvest irrespective of landscape complexity. I suggest that this is explained by the fact that honey bees prefer to forage pollen in semi-natural habitats, which provide diverse resource species but are sparse and presumably hard to find in intensively managed agricultural landscapes. I conclude that waggle dance communication helps to ensure a sufficient and diverse pollen diet which is crucial for honey bee colony health.
VI. In my PhD-project, I could show that honey bee colonies are able to adapt their activities to a seasonally and daily changing environment, which affects resource uptake, colony development, colony health and ultimately colony fitness. Ongoing global change, however, puts timing in honey bee colonies at risk. Climate change has the potential to cause mismatches with the local resource environment. Intensivation of agricultural management with decreased resource diversity and short resource peaks in spring followed by distinctive gaps increases the probability of mismatches. Even the highly efficient foraging system of honey bees might not ensure a sufficiently diverse and healthy diet in such an environment. The global introduction of the parasitic mite V. destructor and the increased exposure to pesticides in intensively managed landscapes further degrades honey bee colony health. This might lead to reduced cognitive capabilities in workers and impact the communication and social organization in colonies, thereby undermining the ability of honey bee colonies to adapt to their environment.
Single-molecule fluorescence microscopy in live \(Trypanosoma\) \(brucei\) and model membranes
(2018)
The eukaryotic parasite Trypanosoma brucei has evolved sophisticated strategies to escape
the host immune response and maintain a persistent infection inside a host. One central
feature of the parasite’s defense mechanism relies on the shielding function of their surface
protein coat. This coat is composed of a dense arrangement of one type of glycosylphosphatidylinositol
(GPI)-anchored variant surface glycoproteins (VSGs) which impair the
identification of epitopes of invariant surface proteins by the immune system. In addition
to the importance of understanding the function of the VSG coat and use it as a potential
target to efficiently fight the parasite, it is also crucial to study its biophysical properties as it is not yet understood sufficiently. This is due to the fact that microscopic investigations
on living trypanosomes are limited to a great extent by the intrinsic motility of the parasite.
In the present study, state-of-the-art single-molecule fluorescence microscopy (SMFM)
is introduced as a tool for biophysical investigations in the field of trypanosome research.
The work encompasses studies of VSG dynamics under the defined conditions of an
artificial supported lipid bilayer (SLB). First, the impact of the lateral protein density on
VSG diffusion was systematically studied in SLBs. Ensemble fluorescence after photobleaching
(FRAP) and complementary single-particle tracking experiments revealed that a
molecular crowding threshold (MCT) exists, above which a density dependent decrease
of the diffusion coefficient is measured. A relative quantification of reconstituted VSGs
illustrated that the VSG coat of living trypanosomes operates very close to its MCT and
is optimized for high density while maintaining fluidity. Second, the impact of VSG
N-glycosylation on VSG diffusion was quantitatively investigated. N-glycosylation was
shown to contribute to preserving protein mobility at high protein concentrations. Third,
a detailed analysis of VSG trajectories revealed that two distinct populations of freely
diffusing VSGs were present in a SLB, which is in agreement with the recent finding, that
VSGs are able to adopt two main structurally distinct conformations. The results from
SLBs were further complemented by single-particle tracking experiments of surface VSGs
on living trypanosomes. A high mobility and free diffusion were measured on the cell
surface, illustrating the overall dynamic nature of the VSG coat. It was concluded that
the VSG coat on living trypanosomes is a protective structure that combines density and
mobility, which is supported by the conformational flexibility of VSGs. These features are
elementary for the persistence of a stable infection in the host.
Different hydrogel embedding methods are presented, that facilitated SMFM in immobilized,
living trypanosomes. The hydrogels were found to be highly cytocompatible for one
hour after cross-linking. They exhibited low autofluorescence properties in the spectral
range of the investigations, making them suitable for super-resolution microscopy (SRM).
Exemplary SRM on living trypanosomes illustrated that the hydrogels efficiently immobilized
the cells on the nanometer lever. Furthermore, the plasma membrane organization was studied in living trypanosomes. A statistical analysis of a tracer molecule inside the
inner leaflet of the plasma membrane revealed that specific membrane domains exist, in
which the tracer appeared accumulated or diluted. It was suggested that this distribution
was caused by the interaction with proteins of the underlying cytoskeleton.
In conclusion, SMFM has been successfully introduced as a tool in the field of trypanosome
research. Measurements in model membranes facilitated systematic studies of VSG dynamics
on the single-molecule level. The implementation of hydrogel immobilization
allowed for the study of static structures and dynamic processes with high spatial and
temporal resolution in living, embedded trypanosomes for the first time.
The present work investigates the influence of environmental stimuli on the building behavior of workers of the leaf-cutting ant Atta vollenweideri. It focuses on cues related to the airflow-driven ventilation of their giant underground nests, i.e., air movements and their direction, carbon dioxide concentrations and humidity levels of the nest air. First, it is shown that workers are able to use airflow and its direction as learned orientation cue by performing learning experiments with individual foragers using a classical conditioning paradigm. This ability is expected to allow workers to also navigate inside the nest tunnels using the prevailing airflow directions for orientation, for example during tasks related to nest construction and climate control.
Furthermore, the influence of carbon dioxide on the digging behavior of workers is investigated. While elevated CO2 levels hardly affect the digging rate of the ants, workers prefer to excavate at locations with lower concentrations and avoid higher CO2 levels when given a choice. Under natural conditions, shifting their digging activity to soil layers containing lower carbon dioxide levels might help colonies to excavate new or to broaden existing nest openings, if the CO2 concentration in the underground rises.
It is also shown that workers preferably transport excavated soil along tunnels containing high CO2 concentrations, when carbon dioxide levels in the underground are elevated as well. In addition, workers prefer to carry soil pellets along outflow tunnels instead of inflow tunnels, at least for high humidity levels of the air. The material transported along tunnels providing outflow of CO2-rich air might be used by workers for the construction of ventilation turrets on top of the nest mound, which is expected to promote the wind-induced ventilation and the removal of carbon dioxide from the underground.
The climatic conditions inside the nest tunnels also influence the structural features of the turrets constructed by workers on top the nest. While airflow and humidity have no effect on turret structure, outflow of CO2-rich air from the nest causes workers to construct turrets with additional openings and increased aperture, potentially enhancing the airflow-driven gas exchanges within the nest.
Finally, the effect of airflow and ventilation turrets on the gas exchanges in Atta vollenweideri nests is tested experimentally on a physical model of a small nest consisting of a single chamber and two nest tunnels. The carbon dioxide clearance rate from the underground was measured depending on both the presence of airflow in the nest and the structural features of the built turrets. Carbon dioxide is removed faster from the physical nest model when air moves through the nest, confirming the contribution of wind-induced flow inside the nest tunnels to the ventilation of Atta vollenweideri nests. In addition, turrets placed on top of one of the tunnel openings of the nest further enhance the CO2 clearance rate and the effect is positively correlated with turret aperture.
Taken together, climatic variables like airflow, carbon dioxide and humidity levels strongly affect the building responses of Atta vollenweideri leaf-cutting ants. Workers use these environmental stimuli as orientation cue in the nest during tasks related to excavation, soil transport and turret construction. Although the effects of these building responses on the microclimatic conditions inside the nest remain elusive so far, the described behaviors are expected to allow ant colonies to restore and maintain a proper nest climate in the underground.
Plant-associated fungi can affect the plants‘ interaction with herbivores and
other microorganisms. For example, many common forage grasses are infected
with Epichloë endophytes. The endophytes systemically colonize the aerial
parts of the plants. They produce bioprotective alkaloids that can negatively
affect insects and livestock feeding on the grasses, and interact with other
fungal species which living from the plants‘ nutrients. Environmental conditions
strongly influence Epichloë endophytes. Endophyte-mediated effects
on herbivores are more pronounced under increased temperatures and the
endophytes may benefit from land use in managed grasslands. Under the
framework of the large-scale German project “Biodiversity Exploratories”, I
investigated whether infection rates and alkaloid concentrations of Epichloë
festucae var. lolii in Lolium perenne (Chapter I) and Epichloë endophytes (E.
uncinata, E. siegelii) in Festuca pratensis (Chapter II) depend on land use and
season. Further I analysed, whether foliar fungal assemblages of L. perenne
are affected by the presence of Epichloë endophytes (Chapter IV).
Die Evolution der Primaten zeigt eine Verbindung zwischen der zunehmenden Komplexität des sozialen Verhaltens und der Vergrößerung des humanen Gehirns, insbesondere des präfrontalen Cortex. Deshalb stellt der präfrontale Cortex bezüglich der Evolution des Menschen eine der interessantesten Strukturen im humanen Gehirn dar. Es wird angenommen, dass nicht allein die Größe, sondern auch die Funktion, vor allem das Zusammenspiel von Neuronen und nicht-neuronalen Zellen, wie z.B. Gliazellen, zur Differenzierung des menschlichen Gehirns von dem rezenter Primaten geführt hat. Daraus lässt sich schließen, dass die Gehirnfunktionen über eine ausgeglichene und gut aufeinander abgestimmte transkriptionelle Landschaft kontrolliert werden, die durch ein zugrundeliegendes genetisches und epigentisches Rückgrat organisiert ist. In dieser Studie wurden das Methylierungsprofil neuronaler und nicht-neuronaler Zellen des präfrontalen Cortex (Brodmann-Areal 10) von drei Menschen und drei Schimpansen miteinander verglichen. Die intra- und interspezifischen differenziell methylierten Regionen (DMRs) waren in bestimmten genomischen Regionen angereichert. Intraspezifische Methylierungsunterschiede zwischen neuronalen und nicht-neuronalen Zellen konnten dreimal häufiger beobachtet werden als interspezifische Unterschiede in den einzelnen Zelltypen. Rund 90% der humanen intraspezifischen DMRs wiesen eine Hypomethylierung in den neuronalen Zellen im Vergleich zu den nicht-neuronalen Zellen auf. In den intraspezifischen DMRs (Mensch und Schimpanse) waren Gene angereichert, die mit verschiedenen neuropsychiatrischen Erkrankungen assoziiert sind. Der Vergleich zwischen Menschen und Schimpanse in den neuronalen und nicht-neuronalen Zelltypen zeigte eine Anreicherung von Genen mit human-spezifischer Histonsignatur. In den nicht-neuronalen Zellen konnten mehr interspezifische DMRs (n=666) detektiert werden als in den neuronalen Zellen (n=96). Ungefähr 95% der nicht-neuronalen interspezifischen DMRs waren im Menschen, im Vergleich zum Schimpansen, hypermethyliert. Daraus ergibt sich der Eindruck, dass mehrere hundert der nicht-neuronalen Gene während der humanen Gehirnevolution einer Methylierungswelle unterlagen. Dies führt zu der Annahme, dass der Einfluss dieser Veränderungen in den nicht-neuronalen Zellen auf die Vergößerung des menschlichen Gehirns bisher stark unterschätzt wurde.
Die bekannteste genetische Ursache für erblichen Brust- und Eierstockkrebs sind Mutationen in den Tumorsuppressorgenen (TSG) BRCA1 und BRCA2. Dennoch können nur rund 20-25% der familiären Brustkrebserkrankungen über Keimbahnmutationen in BRCA1/BRCA2 erklärt werden, besonders bei Frauen, deren Erkrankung vor dem vierzigsten Lebensjahr auftritt. Epigenetische Veränderungen, die zu einer aberranten Genexpression führen, spielen ebenfalls eine wichtige Rolle bei der Karzinogenese und der Entwicklung einer Brustkrebserkrankung. Es ist bekannt, dass TSG nicht nur durch den Verlust der Heterozygotie (engl. loss of heterozygosity, LOH) oder homozygote Deletionen, sondern auch durch transkriptionelle Stilllegung via DNA-Methylierung inaktiviert werden können. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde überprüft, welchen Einfluss aberrante Methylierungsmuster im Promotorbereich von TSG auf die Brustkrebskarzinogenese und die Expression der Gene haben. Für die Quantifizierung der Epimutationen wurden die Promotorbereiche von acht TSG (BRCA1, BRCA2, RAD51C, ATM, PTEN, TP53, MLH1, RB1) und des estrogene receptor (ESR1) Gens, welches eine Rolle in der Tumorprogression spielt, mittels Deep Bisulfite Amplicon Sequencing (DBAS) analysiert. Es wurden Blutproben von zwei unabhängigen BRCA1/BRCA2-mutationsnegativen Brustkrebs (BC)-Patientenkohorten, sowie von zwei unabhängigen alters-gematchten, gesunden Kontrollkohorten untersucht. BC-Kohorte 1 beinhaltet early-onset (EO) BC-Patientinnen. Kohorte 2 enthält BC-Patientinnen mit einem Risiko von >95% eine heterozygote Mutation in BRCA1/BRCA2 (high-risk, HR) zu tragen. Allele mit >50% methylierten CpGs werden als funktionell relevante Epimutationen erachtet, da bekannt ist, dass TSG über eine Methylierung im Promotorbereich transkriptionell stillgelegt werden. Im Vergleich zu ESR1 (Ø Methylierung, 3%), welches die Methylierungslevel eines durchschnittlichen Promotors wiederspiegelt, zeigten die TSG sehr geringe durchschnittliche Methylierungswerte von weniger als 1%. Zudem waren die durchschnittlichen Epimutationsraten (EMR; <0,0001-0,1%) der TSG sehr gering. Mit der Ausnahme von BRCA1, welches eine erhöhte EMR in der BC-Kohorte verglichen zu den Kontrollen (0,31% gegen 0,06%) zeigte, gab es keine signifikanten Gruppenunterschiede zwischen BC-Patientinnen und Kontrollen. Eine von 36 HR BC-Patientinnen zeigte im Vergleich zu den restlichen Proben eine stark erhöhte EMR von 14,7% in BRCA1. Rund ein Drittel (15/44) der EO BC-Patientinnen wiesen eine erhöhte Rate an Einzel-CpG Fehlern in mehreren TSG auf. Die nachfolgenden Expressionsanalysen ergaben eine erniedrigte Expression vieler TSG je analysierter Patientin. Diese Ergebnisse führen zu der Annahme, dass epigenetische Veränderungen in normalen Körperzellen als ein möglicher Indikator für einen gestörten Mechanismus, der für die Aufrechterhaltung des unmethylierten Status und der daraus resultierenden normalen Genexpression zuständig ist, angesehen werden können. Dies kann mit einem erhöhten BC-Risiko assoziiert werden.
The Dual Olfactory Pathway in the Honeybee Brain: Sensory Supply and Electrophysiological Properties
(2018)
The olfactory sense is of utmost importance for honeybees, Apis mellifera. Honeybees use olfaction for communication within the hive, for the identification of nest mates and non-nest mates, the localization of food sources, and in case of drones (males), for the detection of the queen and mating. Honeybees, therefore, can serve as excellent model systems for an integrative analysis of an elaborated olfactory system.
To efficiently filter odorants out of the air with their antennae, honeybees possess a multitude of sensilla that contain the olfactory sensory neurons (OSN). Three types of olfactory sensilla are known from honeybee worker antennae: Sensilla trichoidea, Sensilla basiconica and Sensilla placodea. In the sensilla, odorant receptors that are located in the dendritic arborizations of the OSNs transduce the odorant information into electrical information. Approximately 60.000 OSN axons project in two parallel bundles along the antenna into the brain. Before they enter the primary olfactory brain center, the antennal lobe (AL), they diverge into four distinct tracts (T1-T4). OSNs relay onto ~3.000-4.000 local interneurons (LN) and ~900 projection neurons (PN), the output neurons of the AL. The axons of the OSNs together with neurites from LNs and PNs form spheroidal neuropil units, the so-called glomeruli. OSN axons from the four AL input tracts (T1-T4) project into four glomerular clusters. LNs interconnect the AL glomeruli, whereas PNs relay the information to the next brain centers, the mushroom body (MB) - associated with sensory integration, learning and memory - and the lateral horn (LH). In honeybees, PNs project to the MBs and the LH via two separate tracts, the medial and the lateral antennal-lobe tract (m/lALT) which run in parallel in opposing directions. The mALT runs first to the MB and then to the LH, the lALT runs first to the LH and then to the MB. This dual olfactory pathway represents a feature unique to Hymenoptera. Interestingly, both tracts were shown to process information about similar sets of odorants by extracting different features. Individual mALT PNs are more odor specific than lALT PNs. On the other hand, lALT PNs have higher spontaneous and higher odor response action potential (AP) frequencies than mALT PNs. In the MBs, PNs form synapses with ~184.000 Kenyon cells (KC), which are the MB intrinsic neurons. KCs, in contrast to PNs, show almost no spontaneous activity and employ a spatially and temporally sparse code for odor coding.
In manuscript I of my thesis, I investigated whether the differences in specificity of odor responses between m- and lALT are due to differences in the synaptic input. Therefore, I investigated the axonal projection patterns of OSNs housed in S. basiconica in honeybee workers and compared them with S. trichoidea and S. placodea using selective anterograde labeling with fluorescent tracers and confocal- microscopy analyses of axonal projections in AL glomeruli. Axons of S. basiconica-associated OSNs preferentially projected into the T3 input-tract cluster in the AL, whereas the two other types of sensilla did not show a preference for a specific glomerular cluster. T3- associated glomeruli had previously been shown to be innervated by mALT PNs. Interestingly, S. basiconica as well as a number of T3 glomeruli lack in drones. Therefore I set out to determine whether this was associated with the reduction of glomeruli innervated by mALT PNs. Retrograde tracing of mALT PNs in drones and counting of innervated glomeruli showed that the number of mALT-associated glomeruli was strongly reduced in drones compared to workers. The preferential projections of S. basiconica-associated OSNs into T3 glomeruli in female workers together with the reduction of mALT-associated glomeruli in drones support the presence of a female-specific olfactory subsystem that is partly innervated by OSNs from S. basiconica and is associated with mALT projection neurons. As mALT PNs were shown to be more odor specific, I suppose that already the OSNs in this subsystem are more odor specific than lALT associated OSNs. I conclude that this female-specific subsystem allows the worker honeybees to respond adequately to the enormous variety of odorants they experience during their lifetime.
In manuscript II, I investigated the ion channel composition of mALT and lALT PNs and KCs in situ. This approach represents the first study dealing with the honeybee PN and KC ion channel composition under standard conditions in an intact brain preparation. With these recordings I set out to investigate the potential impact of intrinsic neuronal properties on the differences between m- and lALT PNs and on the sparse odor coding properties of KCs. In PNs, I identified a set of Na+ currents and diverse K+ currents depending on voltage and Na+ or Ca2+ that support relatively high spontaneous and odor response AP frequencies. This set of currents did not significantly differ between mALT and lALT PNs, but targets for potential modulation of currents leading to differences in AP frequencies were found between both types of PNs. In contrast to PNs, KCs have very prominent K+ currents, which are likely to contribute to the sparse response fashion observed in KCs. Furthermore, Ca2+ dependent K+ currents were found, which may be of importance for coincidence detection, learning and memory formation.
Finally, I conclude that the differences in odor specificity between m- and lALT PNs are due to their synaptic input from different sets of OSNs and potential processing by LNs. The differences in spontaneous activity between the two tracts may be caused by different neuronal modulation or, in addition, also by interaction with LNs. The temporally sparse representation of odors in KCs is very likely based on the intrinsic KC properties, whereas general excitability and spatial sparseness are likely to be regulated through GABAergic feedback neurons.
African trypanosomes are the causative agents of fatal diseases in humans and livestock. Trypanosomes show a complex lifecycle and shuttle between the transmitting vector, the tsetse (Glossina spec.), and the mammalian host. As a result of this the parasite undergoes tremendous changes in morphology and metabolism to adapt to the different living environments.
The two best-studied lifecycle stages are the procyclic forms (PCF) that live in the tsetse fly and the proliferative bloodstream form (BSF) that resides in the mammalian blood. The most conspicuous weapon that trypanosomes use to evade the host immune attack is a dense layer of a single protein type, the variant surface glycoprotein (VSG), which shields the entire cell surface. Immune evasion required high rates of surface membrane turnover and surface coat recycling.
Trypanosomes show highly polarised cell architecture with all major eukaryotic organelles (endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, endosomal apparatus, lysosome, mitochondrion and peroxisome-like glycosomes) generally present in single copy. Furthermore, trypanosomes possess a single flagellum, which is important not only for cellular motility but also for cell division.
How the duplication of all these cellular components is coordinated in order to progresss through the cell division cycle is poorly understood.
We used trypanosomes as a model organism due to the relative simplicity and the polarised nature of their cell architecture and determined the duplication of all their compartments. This was only possible due to a new synchronisation approach developed during this project.
In the first part of the thesis a precise temporal map of the cell division cycle of the BSF T. brucei cell division cycle was generated. By the use of well-described morphological markers (K/N status, new flagellum outgrowth and DNA synthesis) the position of individual cells was determined with high temporal resolution; this allowed us for the first time to synchronise a cell population in silico without affecting the naturally asynchronous growth.
In the second part of the thesis we used this tool to follow duplication events of the Major organelles during progression through the cell division cycle. We precisely determined the time points of organelle duplication and found that it is ordered in trypanosomes. Furthermore we found that BSF T. brucei cells do not grow continuously, cell size start to increase rapidly, during a short period of time, late in the cell division cycle. We speculate that the initiation of cell volume increase is temporally separated from the formation of all secretory organelles in order to ensure maintenance of the protective coat, which must remain intact at all times in order for BSF trypanosomes to be able to evade the host immune response.
Characterization of motility and erythrocyte adherence as virulence factors in African trypanosomes
(2018)
Pathogens causing African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT), the major livestock disease in sub-Saharan Africa, belong to the salivarian group of the African trypanosomes, which are transmitted by the bite of the tsetse fly (Glossina spec.). T. vivax, T. congolense and T. brucei brucei are major pathogens of cattle in particular, causing nagana, with dramatic socio-economic consequences for the affected regions. The parasites additionally have a huge reservoir of other livestock and wild animal hosts. T. brucei, the species which also includes the subspecies pathogenic to humans causing sleeping sickness, has been extensively studied as the cultivatable model trypanosome. But less is known about the other salivarian species, which are not routinely held in culture, if at all possible. A hallmark of trypanosomal lifestyle is the protozoan flagellates incessant motility, which enables them to populate an enormous range of habitats in very diverse hosts. We were now able to characterize, for the first time with high spatiotemporal resolution microscopy, the swimming behaviour and mechanism of the most relevant salivarian species isolated directly from blood. We show the influence of viscosity on the motility of bloodstream form (BSF) cells and simulate their movement between erythrocytes, giving a clear picture of how all analyzed species move under varying environmental conditions. We show that although the basic mechanism of flagellar motility applies to all analyzed species, there are clear morphological differences that produce different reactions to the physical environment. We could define specific conditions for highly increased swimming persistence and speed for compared to the behaviour in standard culture. These results have important implications for the parasites survival strategies in the host, e.g. regarding the capacity for antibody clearance. Although we show all species to effectively remove antibodies from the cell surface, T. congolense differed markedly in its motility behaviour, which gives rise to interesting questions about this species behaviour in the bloodstream. Most of the T. congolense parasites (and to a lesser extent T. vivax) adhere to sheep erythrocytes. Further in vitro studies showed that T. congolense and T. vivax adhered to rabbit, goat, pig and cattle erythrocytes- but binding behaviour was absent in murine blood. Notably, both T. brucei and T. evansi lacked adherence to all studied host erythrocytes. Generally, attachment to blood cells caused reduction of swimming velocities. Judging from its cell architecture, as well as the motility studies in higher media viscosity and in micropillar arrays, T. congolense is not adapted to swim at high speeds in the mammalian bloodstream. Low swimming speeds could allow these purely intravascular parasites to remain bound to the host erythrocytes.
Simkania negevensis (Sn) repliziert als Chlamydia-ähnliches obligat intrazelluläres Bakterium auch in einer membranumschlossenen Vakuole, die als SCV (engl. Simkania-containing vacuole) bezeichnet wird. Die SCV ist ein bis jetzt einzigartiges Kompartiment, das stark mit ER-Membranen assoziiert ist, wobei ER-Stress von den Bakterien blockiert wird. Die Morphologie der SCV scheint dabei in Epithelzellen (HeLa229, A549, HEp-2) als auch in Makrophagen (THP1) gleich zu sein. Die SCV stellt die erste intrazelluläre Berührungsfläche dar, an der Interaktionen zwischen Wirt und Pathogen erfolgen, und dient gleichzeitig als Replikationsnische. Mithilfe der Identifizierung von humanen und bakteriellen Faktoren, die mit der ER-SCV-Membran assoziiert sind, sollten die Zusammensetzung der SCV sowie mögliche Interaktionen mit dem ER oder zellulären Transportwegen ermittelt werden. Vergleichsstudien von SCV-assoziierten Proteinen sollten Ähnlichkeiten zur chlamydialen Inklusion aufzeigen, für die bereits einige interagierende Wirtszellfaktoren beschrieben wurden. In dieser Arbeit wurde ein Aufreinigungsprotokoll etabliert, das sowohl für ER-SCVMembranen aus HeLa229 als auch THP1 geeignet war und für spätere Proteom- oder Lipidomanalysen diente. Über markierungsfreie massenspektrometrische Messungen konnten 302 bakterielle und 1178 humane Proteine in ER-(SCV-) Membranen und 885 bakterielle Proteine in aufgereinigten Sn identifiziert werden. In ER-(SCV-) Membranen von nicht und Sn-infizierten HeLa229 Zellen befanden sich 51 unterschiedlich verteilte und 57 transportassoziierte humane Proteine, die auf infektionsinduzierte Unterschiede beim intrazellulären Proteintransport hindeuteten. Eine entgegengesetzte Regulation von retro- und anterograd transportierten Proteinen konnte mithilfe von RNA-Interferenz und dem Einsatz geeigneter Inhibitoren bestätigt werden, wobei sich zeigte, dass Clathrin-assoziierte und COPI-Vesikel eine zentrale Rolle spielen. Retro-Inhibitoren, die den retrograden Transport zwischen Endosomen zum Golgi oder zwischen frühen und späten Endosomen inhibieren, sowie Bafilomycin A1 (retrograd, späte Endosomen und Lysosomen) und Brefeldin A (anterograd, ER und Golgi), beeinflussten massiv die SCV-Ausbildung, SCV-Morphologie und den intrazellulären Lipidtransport. Über markierungsfreie massenspektrometrische und dünnschichtchromatographische Analysen konnten erste Unterschiede im Lipidvorkommen in Sn-infizierten Zellen, an ER-SCVMembranen und in aufgereinigten Sn im Vergleich zu nicht infizierten Zellen ermittelt werden. Dabei konnten neben An- und Abreicherungen in Gesamtzellextrakten sowie ER-SCVMembranen zwei infektionsspezifische Lipide, Cholesterol-ß-D-Glykosid und PE 30:0, identifiziert werden. Weiterführende umfangreiche RNA-Interferenzstudien weisen darauf hin, dass die Sn-Infektion vom Endosomen-zum-Golgi-Transport und vom Clathrin-assoziierten Vesikeltransport abhängig ist. Zusammenfassend konnten erste mögliche SCV-assoziierte Proteine und Lipide identifiziert werden, die mit der bakteriellen Infektion verbunden waren. Des Weiteren hängen eine stabile SCV-Ausbildung und Sn-Infektivität von verschiedenen retrograden Transportwegen und damit von dem Erwerb von Nährstoffen wie bspw. Lipiden ab.
The molecular architecture of the meiotic chromosome axis as revealed by super-resolution microscopy
(2018)
During meiosis proteins of the chromosome axis are important for monitoring chromatin structure and condensation, for pairing and segregation of chromosomes, as well as for accurate recombination. They include HORMA-domain proteins, proteins of the DNA repair system, synaptonemal complex (SC) proteins, condensins and cohesins. To understand more about their function in shaping the meiotic chromosome it is crucial to establish a defined model of their molecular architecture. Up to now their molecular organization was analysed using conventional methods, like confocal scanning microscopy (CLSM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Unfortunately, these techniques are limited either by their resolution power or their localization accuracy. In conclusion, a lot of data on the molecular organization of chromosome axis proteins stays elusive. For this thesis the molecular structure of the murine synaptonemal complex (SC) and the localization of its proteins as well as of three cohesins was analysed with isotropic resolution, providing new insights into their architecture and topography on a nanoscale level. This was done using immunofluorescence labelling in combination with super-resolution microscopy, line profiles and average position determination. The results show that the murine SC has a width of 221.6 nm ± 6.1 nm including a central region (CR) of 148.2 nm ± 2.6 nm. In the CR a multi-layered organization of the central element (CE) proteins was verified by measuring their strand diameters and strand distances and additionally by imaging potential anchoring sites of SYCP1 (synaptonemal complex protein 1) to the lateral elements (LEs). We were able to show that the two LEs proteins SYCP2 and SYCP3 do co-localize alongside their axis and that there is no significant preferential localization towards the inner LE axis of SYCP2.
The presented results also predict an orderly organization of murine cohesin complexes (CCs) alongside the chromosome axis in germ cells and support the hypothesis that cohesins in the CR of the SC function independent of CCs.
In the end new information on the molecular organization of two main components of the murine chromosome axis were retrieved with nanometer precision and previously unknown details of their molecular architecture and topography were unravelled.
Solitary bees in seasonal environments have to align their life-cycles with favorable environmental conditions and resources. Therefore, a proper timing of their seasonal activity is highly fitness relevant. Most species in temperate environments use temperature as a trigger for the timing of their seasonal activity. Hence, global warming can disrupt mutualistic interactions between solitary bees and plants if increasing temperatures differently change the timing of interaction partners. The objective of this dissertation was to investigate the mechanisms of timing in spring-emerging solitary bees as well as the resulting fitness consequences if temporal mismatches with their host plants should occur. In my experiments, I focused on spring-emerging solitary bees of the genus Osmia and thereby mainly on O. cornuta and O. bicornis (in one study which is presented in Chapter IV, I additionally investigated a third species: O. brevicornis).
Chapter II presents a study in which I investigated different triggers solitary bees are using to time their emergence in spring. In a climate chamber experiment I investigated the relationship between overwintering temperature, body size, body weight and emergence date. In addition, I developed a simple mechanistic model that allowed me to unite my different observations in a consistent framework. In combination with the empirical data, the model strongly suggests that solitary bees follow a strategic approach and emerge at a date that is most profitable for their individual fitness expectations. I have shown that this date is on the one hand temperature dependent as warmer overwintering temperatures increase the weight loss of bees during hibernation, which then advances their optimal emergence date to an earlier time point (due to an earlier benefit from the emergence event). On the other hand I have also shown that the optimal emergence date depends on the individual body size (or body weight) as bees adjust their emergence date accordingly. My data show that it is not enough to solely investigate temperature effects on the timing of bee emergence, but that we should also consider individual body conditions of solitary bees to understand the timing of bee emergence.
In Chapter III, I present a study in which I investigated how exactly temperature determines the emergence date of solitary bees. Therefore, I tested several variants degree-day models to relate temperature time series to emergence data. The basic functioning of such degree-day models is that bees are said to finally emerge when a critical amount of degree-days is accumulated. I showed that bees accumulate degree-days only above a critical temperature value (~4°C in O. cornuta and ~7°C in O. bicornis) and only after the exceedance of a critical calendar date (~10th of March in O. cornuta and ~28th of March in O. bicornis). Such a critical calendar date, before which degree-days are not accumulated irrespective of the actual temperature, is in general less commonly used and, so far, it has only been included twice in a phenology model predicting bee emergence. Furthermore, I used this model to retrospectively predict the emergence dates of bees by applying the model to long-term temperature data which have been recorded by the regional climate station in Würzburg. By doing so, the model estimated that over the last 63 years, bees emerged approximately 4 days earlier.
In Chapter IV, I present a study in which I investigated how temporal mismatches in bee-plant interactions affect the fitness of solitary bees. Therefore, I performed an experiment with large flight cages serving as mesocosms. Inside these mesocosms, I manipulated the supply of blossoms to synchronize or desynchronize bee-plant interactions. In sum, I showed that even short temporal mismatches of three and six days in bee-plant interactions (with solitary bee emergence before flower occurrence) can cause severe fitness losses in solitary bees. Nonetheless, I detected different strategies by solitary bees to counteract impacts on their fitness after temporal mismatches. However, since these strategies may result in secondary fitness costs by a changed sex ratio or increased parasitism, I concluded that compensation strategies do not fully mitigate fitness losses of bees after short temporal mismatches with their food plants. In the event of further climate warming, fitness losses after temporal mismatches may not only exacerbate bee declines but may also reduce pollination services for later-flowering species and affect populations of animal-pollinated plants.
In conclusion, I showed that spring-emerging solitary bees are susceptible to climate change as in response to warmer temperatures bees advance their phenology and show a decreased fitness state. As spring-emerging solitary bees not only consider overwintering temperature but also their individual body condition for adjusting emergence dates, this may explain differing responses to climate warming within and among bee populations which may also have consequences for bee-plant interactions and the persistence of bee populations under further climate warming. If in response to climate warming plants do not shift their phenologies according to the bees, bees may experience temporal mismatches with their host plants. As bees failed to show a single compensation strategy that was entirely successful in mitigating fitness consequences after temporal mismatches with their food plants, the resulting fitness consequences for spring-emerging solitary bees would be severe. Furthermore, I showed that spring-emerging solitary bees use a critical calendar date before which they generally do not commence the summation of degree-days irrespective of the actual temperature. I therefore suggest that further studies should also include the parameter of a critical calendar date into degree-day model predictions to increase the accuracy of model predictions for emergence dates in solitary bees. Although our retrospective prediction about the advance in bee emergence corresponds to the results of several studies on phenological trends of different plant species, we suggest that more research has to be done to assess the impacts of climate warming on the synchronization in bee-plant interactions more accurately.
The rotation of the earth around its axis causes recurring and predictable changes in the environment. To anticipate those changes and adapt their physiology and behavior accordingly, most organisms possess an endogenous clock. The presence of such a clock has been demonstrated for several ant species including Camponotus ants, but its involvement in the scheduling of daily activities within and outside the ant nest is fairly unknown. Timing of individual behaviors and synchronization among individuals is needed to generate a coordinated collective response and to maintain colony function. The aim of this thesis was to investigate the presence of a circadian clock in different worker castes, and to determine the daily timing of their behavioral tasks within the colonies of two nectar-collecting Camponotus species.
In chapter I, I describe the general temporal organization of work throughout the worker life in the species Camponotus rufipes. Continuous tracking of behavioral activity of individually- marked workers for up to 11 weeks in subcolonies revealed an age-dependent division of labor between interior and exterior workers. After eclosion, the fairly immobile young ants were frequently nurtured by older nurses, yet they started nursing the brood themselves within the first 48 hours of their life. Only 60% of workers switched to foraging at an age range of one to two weeks, likely because of the reduced needs within the small scale of the subcolonies. Not only the transition rates varied between subcolonies, but also the time courses of the task sequences between workers did, emphasizing the timed allocation of workers to different tasks in response to colony needs.
Most of the observed foragers were present outside the nest only during the night, indicating a distinct timing of this behavioral activity on a daily level as well. As food availability, humidity and temperature levels were kept constant throughout the day, the preference for nocturnal activity seems to be endogenous and characteristic for C. rufipes. The subsequent monitoring of locomotor activity of workers taken from the subcolonies revealed the presence of a functional endogenous clock already in one-day old ants. As some nurses displayed activity rhythms in phase with the foraging rhythm, a synchronization of these in-nest workers by social interactions with exterior workers can be hypothesized.
Do both castes use their endogenous clock to schedule their daily activities within the colony? In chapter II, I analyzed behavioral activity of C. rufipes foragers and nurses within the social context continuously for 24 hours. As time-restricted access to food sources may be one factor affecting daily activities of ants under natural conditions, I confronted subcolonies with either daily pulses of food availability or ad libitum feeding. Under nighttime and ad libitum feeding, behavioral activity of foragers outside the nest was predominantly nocturnal, confirming the results from the simple counting of exterior workers done in chapter I. Foragers switched to diurnality during daytime feeding, demonstrating the flexible and adaptive timing of a daily behavior. Because they synchronized their activity with the short times of food availability, these workers showed high levels of inactivity. Nurses, in contrast, were active all around the clock independent of the feeding regime, spending their active time largely with feeding and licking the brood. After the feeding pulses, however, a short bout of activity was observed in nurses. During this time period, both castes increasingly interacted via trophallaxis within the nest. With this form of social zeitgeber, exterior workers were able to entrain in-nest workers, a phenomenon observed already in chapter I. Under the subsequent monitoring of locomotor activity under LD conditions the rhythmic workers of both castes were uniformly nocturnal independent of the feeding regime. This endogenous activity pattern displayed by both worker castes in isolation was modified in the social context in adaption to task demands.
Chapter III focuses on the potential factors causing the observed plasticity of daily rhythms in the social context in the ant C. rufipes. As presence of brood and conspecifics are likely indicators of the social context, I tested the effect of these factors on the endogenous rhythms of otherwise isolated individuals. Even in foragers, the contact to brood triggered an arrhythmic activity pattern resembling the arrhythmic behavioral activity pattern seen in nurses within the social context. As indicated in chapter I and II, social interaction could be one crucial factor for the synchronization of in nest activities. When separate groups were entrained to phase-shifted light-dark-cycles and monitored afterwards under constant conditions in pairwise contact through a mesh partitioning, both individuals shifted parts of their activity towards the activity period of the conspecific. Both social cues modulated the endogenous rhythms of workers and contribute to the context dependent plasticity in ant colonies.
Although most nursing activities are executed arrhythmically throughout the day (chapter II), previous studies reported rhythmic translocation events of the brood in Camponotus nurses. As this behavior favors brood development, the timing of the translocations within the dark nest seems to be crucial. In chapter IV, I tracked translocation activity of all nurses within subcolonies of C. mus. Under the confirmed synchronized conditions of a LD-cycle, the daily pattern of brood relocation was based on the rhythmic, alternating activity of subpopulations with preferred translocation direction either to the warm or to the cold part of the temperature gradient at certain times of the day. Although the social interaction after pulse feeding had noticeable effects on the in-nest activity in C. rufipes (chapter I and II), it was not sufficient to synchronize the brood translocation rhythm of C. mus under constant darkness (e.g. when other zeitgebers were absent). The free-running translocation activity in some nurses demonstrated nevertheless the involvement of an endogenous clock in this behavior, which could be entrained under natural conditions by other potential non-photic zeitgebers like temperature and humidity cycles.
Daily cycling of temperature and humidity could not only be relevant for in-nest activities, but also for the foraging activity outside the nest. Chapter V focuses on the monitoring of field foraging rhythms in the sympatric species C. mus and C. rufipes in relation to abiotic factors. Although both species had comparable critical thermal limits in the laboratory, foragers in C. mus were strictly diurnal and therefore foraged under higher temperatures than the predominant nocturnal foragers in C. rufipes. Marking experiments in C. rufipes colonies with higher levels of diurnal activity revealed the presence of temporally specialized forager subpopulations. These results suggest the presence of temporal niches not only between the two Camponotus species, but as well between workers within colonies of the same species.
In conclusion, the temporal organization in colonies of Camponotus ants involves not only the scheduling of tasks performed throughout the worker life, but also the precise timing of daily activities. The necessary endogenous clock is already functioning in all workers after eclosion. Whereas the light-dark cycle and food availability seem to be the prominent zeitgebers for foragers, nurses may rely more on non-photic zeitgeber like social interaction, temperature and humidity cycles.
Trypanosoma brucei is an obligate parasite and causative agent of severe diseases affecting humans and livestock. The protist lives extracellularly in the bloodstream of the mammalian host, where it is prone to attacks by the host immune system. As a sophisticated means of defence against the immune response, the parasite’s surface is coated in a dense layer of the variant surface glycoprotein (VSG), that reduces identification of invariant epitopes on the cell surface by the immune system to levels that prevent host immunity. The VSG has to form a coat that is both dense and mobile, to shield invariant surface proteins from detection and to allow quick recycling of the protective coat during immune evasion. This coat effectively protects the parasite from the harsh environment that is the mammalian bloodstream and leads to a persistent parasitemia if the infection remains untreated. The available treatment against African Trypanosomiasis involves the use of drugs that are themselves severely toxic and that can lead to the death of the patient. Most of the drugs used as treatment were developed in the early-to-mid 20th century, and while developments continue, they still represent the best medical means to fight the parasite. The discovery of a fluorescent VSG gave rise to speculations about a potential interaction between the VSG coat and components of the surrounding medium, that could also lead to a new approach in the treatment of African Trypanosomiasis that involves the VSG coat. The initially observed fluorescence signal was specific for a combination of a VSG called VSG’Y’ and the triphenylmethane (TPM) dye phenol red. Exchanging this TPM to a bromo-derivative led to the observation of another fluorescence effect termed trypanicidal effect which killed the parasite independent of the expressed VSG and suggests a structurally conserved feature between VSGs that could function as a specific drug target against T. b. brucei. The work of this thesis aims to identify the mechanisms that govern the unique VSG’Y’ fluorescence and the trypanocidal effect. Fluorescence experiments and protein mutagenesis of VSG’Y’ as well as crystallographic trials with a range of different VSGs were utilized in the endeavour to identify the binding mechanisms between TPM compounds and VSGs, to find potentially conserved structural features between VSGs and to identify the working mechanisms of VSG fluorescence and the trypanocidal effect. These trials have the potential to lead to the formulation of highly specific drugs that
target the parasites VSG coat.
During the crystallographic trials of this thesis, the complete structure of a VSG was solved experimentally for the first time. This complete structure is a key component in furthering the understanding of the mechanisms governing VSG coat formation. X-ray scattering techniques, involving x-ray crystallography and small angle x-ray scattering were applied to elucidate the first complete VSG structures, which reveal high flexibility of the protein and supplies insight into the importance of this flexibility in the formation of a densely packed but highly mobile surface coat.
The rotation of the earth leads to a cyclic change of night and day. Numerous strategies evolved to cope with diurnal change, as it is generally advantageous to be synchronous to the cyclic change in abiotic conditions. Diurnal rhythms are regulated by the circadian clock, a molecular feedback loop of RNA and protein levels with a period of circa 24 hours. Despite its importance for individuals as well as for species interactions, our knowledge of circadian clocks is mostly confined to few model organisms.
While the structuring of activity is generally adaptive, a rigid temporal organization also has its drawbacks. For example, the specialization to a diurnal pattern limits the breadth of the temporal niche. Organisms that are adapted to a diurnal life style are often poor predators or foragers during night time, constraining the time budget to only diurnal parts of the day/night cycle.
Climate change causes shifts in phenology (seasonal timing) and northward range expansions, and changes in season or in latitude are associated with novel day length – temperature correlations. Thus, seasonal organisms will have some life history stages exposed to novel day lengths, and I hypothesized that the diurnal niche determines whether the day length changes are beneficial or harmful for the organism. I thus studied the effects of day length on life-history traits in a multi-trophic system consisting of the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum and predatory larvae of Chrysoperla carnea (common green lacewing) and Episyrphus balteatus (marmalade hoverfly). In order to identify the mechanisms for phenological constraints I then focused on diurnal rhythms and the circadian clock of the pea aphid.
Aphids reacted to shorter days with a reduced fecundity and shorter reproductive period. Short days did however not impact population growth, because the fitness constraints only became apparent late in the individual’s life. In contrast, E. balteatus grew 13% faster in the shorter day treatment and preyed on significantly more aphids, whereas C. carnea grew 13% faster under longer days and the elevation of predation rates was marginally significant. These results show that day length affects vital life-history traits, but that the direction and effect size depends on species.
I hypothesized that the constraints or fitness benefits are caused by a constricted or expanded time budget, and hence depend on the temporal niche. E. balteatus is indeed night-active and C. carnea appears to be crepuscular, but very little data exists for A. pisum. Hence, I reared the pea aphid on an artificial diet and recorded survival, moulting and honeydew excretion. The activity patterns were clearly rhythmic and molting and honeydew excretion were elevated during day-time. Thus, the diurnal niche could explain the observed, but weak, day length constraints of aphids.
The diurnal niche of some organisms is remarkably flexible, and a flexible diurnal niche may explain why the day length constrains were relatively low in A. pisum. I thus studied its circadian clock, the mechanism that regulates diurnal rhythms. First, I improved an artificial diet for A. pisum, and added the food colorant Brilliant Blue FCF. This food colorant stained gut and honeydew in low concentration without causing mortalities, and thus made honeydew excretion visible under dim red light. I then used the blue diet to raise individual aphids in 16:08 LD and constant darkness (DD), and recorded honeydew excretion and molting under red light every three hours. In addition, we used a novel monitoring setup to track locomotor activity continuously in LD and DD. Both the locomotor rhythm and honeydew excretion of A. pisum appeared to be bimodal, peaking in early morning and in the afternoon in LD. Both metabolic and locomotor rhythm persisted also for some time under constant darkness, indicating that the rhythms are driven by a functional circadian clock. However, the metabolic rhythm damped within three to four days, whereas locomotor rhythmicity persisted with a complex distribution of several free-running periods. These results fit to a damped circadian clock that is driven by multiple oscillator populations, a model that has been proposed to link circadian clocks and photoperiodism, but never empirically tested.
Overall, my studies integrate constraints in phenological adaptation with a mechanistic explanation. I showed that a shorter day length can constrain some species of a trophic network while being beneficial for others, and linked the differences to the diurnal niche of the species. I further demonstrated that a flexible circadian clock may alleviate the constraints, potentially by increasing the plasticity of the diurnal niche.
Transforming modern agriculture towards both higher yields and greater sustainability is critical for preserving biodiversity in an increasingly populous and variable world. However, the intensity of agricultural practices varies strongly between crop systems. Given limited research capacity, it is crucial to focus efforts to increase sustainability in the crop systems that need it most. In this study, we investigate the match (or mismatch) between the intensity of pesticide use and the availability of knowledge on the ecosystem service of natural pest control across various crop systems. Using a systematic literature search on pest control and publicly available pesticide data, we find that pest control literature is not more abundant in crops where insecticide input per hectare is highest. Instead, pest control literature is most abundant, with the highest number of studies published, in crops with comparatively low insecticide input per hectare but with high world harvested area. These results suggest that a major increase of interest in agroecological research towards crops with high insecticide input, particularly cotton and horticultural crops such as citrus and high value-added vegetables, would help meet knowledge needs for a timely ecointensification of agriculture.