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The factors determining gradients of biodiversity are a fundamental yet unresolved topic in ecology. While diversity gradients have been analysed for numerous single taxa, progress towards general explanatory models has been hampered by limitations in the phylogenetic coverage of past studies. By parallel sampling of 25 major plant and animal taxa along a 3.7 km elevational gradient on Mt. Kilimanjaro, we quantify cross-taxon consensus in diversity gradients and evaluate predictors of diversity from single taxa to a multi-taxa community level. While single taxa show complex distribution patterns and respond to different environmental factors, scaling up diversity to the community level leads to an unambiguous support for temperature as the main predictor of species richness in both plants and animals. Our findings illuminate the influence of taxonomic coverage for models of diversity gradients and point to the importance of temperature for diversification and species coexistence in plant and animal communities.
Forest fragmentation and selective logging are two main drivers of global environmental change and modify biodiversity and environmental conditions in many tropical forests. The consequences of these changes for the functioning of tropical forest ecosystems have rarely been explored in a comprehensive approach. In a Kenyan rainforest, we studied six animal-mediated ecosystem processes and recorded species richness and community composition of all animal taxa involved in these processes. We used linear models and a formal meta-analysis to test whether forest fragmentation and selective logging affected ecosystem processes and biodiversity and used structural equation models to disentangle direct from biodiversity-related indirect effects of human disturbance on multiple ecosystem processes. Fragmentation increased decomposition and reduced antbird predation, while selective logging consistently increased pollination, seed dispersal and army-ant raiding. Fragmentation modified species richness or community composition of five taxa, whereas selective logging did not affect any component of biodiversity. Changes in the abundance of functionally important species were related to lower predation by antbirds and higher decomposition rates in small forest fragments. The positive effects of selective logging on bee pollination, bird seed dispersal and army-ant raiding were direct, i.e. not related to changes in biodiversity, and were probably due to behavioural changes of these highly mobile animal taxa. We conclude that animal-mediated ecosystem processes respond in distinct ways to different types of human disturbance in Kakamega Forest. Our findings suggest that forest fragmentation affects ecosystem processes indirectly by changes in biodiversity, whereas selective logging influences processes directly by modifying local environmental conditions and resource distributions. The positive to neutral effects of selective logging on ecosystem processes show that the functionality of tropical forests can be maintained in moderately disturbed forest fragments. Conservation concepts for tropical forests should thus include not only remaining pristine forests but also functionally viable forest remnants.
In allen Retroviren, mit Ausnahme der Foamyviren (FV), wird das Pol-Protein als Gag-Pol-Fusionsprotein exprimiert. Dieser Mechanismus sichert die Inkorporation von Pol in das virale Partikel. FV unterscheiden sich in vielen Merkmalen von den Orthoretroviren, unter anderem wird das Pol-Protein von einer eigenen gespleißten mRNA translatiert. Diese von Gag unabhängige Expression führt zu der Frage nach dem Mechanismus der Pol-Inkorporation in foamyvirale Partikel. Unter Nutzung eines transienten FV-Vektor Transfektionssystems, das auf der Kotransfektion von vier separaten Expressionseinheiten zur Produktion von Gag, Pol, Env und einer Vektor-RNA beruht, konnte gezeigt werden, daß (prä)genomische RNA für die effiziente Partikelinkorporation von Pol notwendig ist. Protein-Protein-Interaktionen zwischen Pol und Gag sind deshalb nicht ausreichend für die Bildung vollständiger Viruspartikel. Im nächsten Schritt wurde untersucht, ob es möglich ist spezifische Sequenzen in der Virus-RNA zu identifizieren, die für die Inkorporation des Pol-Proteins essentiell sind. Empririsch wurden bereits zwei cis-aktive Sequenzen (CAS) identifiziert, die, zusammen mit den long terminal repeats (LTR) und benachbarten Sequenzen für die reverse Transkription und Integration, ausreichend für effizienten FV-Vektortransfer sind. Daher müssen RNA-Elemente, die für die Verpackung des Pol-Proteins nötig sind, in diesen beiden CAS liegen. Durch das Einführen von Deletionen und anschließender Analyse der Proteinzusammensetzung und des RNA-Gehaltes von Viruspartikeln, wurden die für die Pol-Inkorporation essentiellen RNA-Sequenzen identifiziert. In dieser Arbeit konnten zwei RNA-Sequenzelemente definiert werden, die für die Partikelinkorporation des Pol-Proteins notwendig sind, diese wurden PES (Pol encapsidation sequences) genannt. Keines der beiden Sequenzelemente hat einen signifikanten Einfluß auf die Verpackung der Vektor-RNA, wohingegen bereits die Deletion einer der PES zu einer signifikanten Reduktion der Pol-Verpackung führt. Eine PES, die möglicherweise nur 30 nt umfaßt, liegt unmittelbar 5’ der PBS (Nukleotide 318-345, relativ zu PFV Transkriptionsstart) und die zweite PES mit einer wahrscheinlichen Länge von 370 nt liegt in der 3’ Region des pol-Gens (Nukleotide 4980-5351). Diese Ergebnisse führen zu einem Model, in dem die (prä)genomische RNA von FV als eine Art Brückenmolekül zwischen Gag und Pol fungiert. Die RNA interagiert auf der einen Seite über die PES mit Pol und auf der anderen Seite mit Gag über die GRI-Box im carboxyterminalen Bereich des Proteins und vermittelt so die Inkorporation des Pol-Proteins in das Gag-Kapsid. Weiterhin wurden die Voraussetzungen auf Proteinebene für die Verpackung des Pol-Proteins untersucht. Hierbei konnte gezeigt werden, daß nur das Pol-Vorläuferprotein und weder die einzelne Reverse Transkriptase- noch die Integrase-Untereinheit in das foamyvirale Partikel verpackt wird. Die enzymatischen Aktivitäten der Protease, der Reversen Transkriptase oder der Integrase des Pol-Proteins sind für die Verpackung jedoch nicht essentiell.
Species' functional traits set the blueprint for pair-wise interactions in ecological networks. Yet, it is unknown to what extent the functional diversity of plant and animal communities controls network assembly along environmental gradients in real-world ecosystems. Here we address this question with a unique dataset of mutualistic bird-fruit, bird-flower and insect-flower interaction networks and associated functional traits of 200 plant and 282 animal species sampled along broad climate and land-use gradients on Mt. Kilimanjaro. We show that plant functional diversity is mainly limited by precipitation, while animal functional diversity is primarily limited by temperature. Furthermore, shifts in plant and animal functional diversity along the elevational gradient control the niche breadth and partitioning of the respective other trophic level. These findings reveal that climatic constraints on the functional diversity of either plants or animals determine the relative importance of bottom-up and top-down control in plant-animal interaction networks.
Background
Over the past two decades, there has been a rising trend in malignant melanoma incidence worldwide. In 2008, Germany introduced a nationwide skin cancer screening program starting at age 35. The aims of this study were to analyse the distribution of malignant melanoma tumour stages over time, as well as demographic and regional differences in stage distribution and survival of melanoma patients.
Methods
Pooled data from 61 895 malignant melanoma patients diagnosed between 2002 and 2011 and documented in 28 German population-based and hospital-based clinical cancer registries were analysed using descriptive methods, joinpoint regression, logistic regression and relative survival.
Results
The number of annually documented cases increased by 53.2% between 2002 (N = 4 779) and 2011 (N = 7 320). There was a statistically significant continuous positive trend in the proportion of stage UICC I cases diagnosed between 2002 and 2011, compared to a negative trend for stage UICC II. No trends were found for stages UICC III and IV respectively. Age (OR 0.97, 95% CI 0.97–0.97), sex (OR 1.18, 95% CI 1.11–1.25), date of diagnosis (OR 1.05, 95% CI 1.04–1.06), ‘diagnosis during screening’ (OR 3.24, 95% CI 2.50–4.19) and place of residence (OR 1.23, 95% CI 1.16–1.30) had a statistically significant influence on the tumour stage at diagnosis. The overall 5-year relative survival for invasive cases was 83.4% (95% CI 82.8–83.9%).
Conclusions
No distinct changes in the distribution of malignant melanoma tumour stages among those aged 35 and older were seen that could be directly attributed to the introduction of skin cancer screening in 2008.
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The monitoring of species and functional diversity is of increasing relevance for the development of strategies for the conservation and management of biodiversity. Therefore, reliable estimates of the performance of monitoring techniques across taxa become important. Using a unique dataset, this study investigates the potential of airborne LiDAR-derived variables characterizing vegetation structure as predictors for animal species richness at the southern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro. To disentangle the structural LiDAR information from co-factors related to elevational vegetation zones, LiDAR-based models were compared to the predictive power of elevation models. 17 taxa and 4 feeding guilds were modeled and the standardized study design allowed for a comparison across the assemblages. Results show that most taxa (14) and feeding guilds (3) can be predicted best by elevation with normalized RMSE values but only for three of those taxa and two of those feeding guilds the difference to other models is significant. Generally, modeling performances between different models vary only slightly for each assemblage. For the remaining, structural information at most showed little additional contribution to the performance. In summary, LiDAR observations can be used for animal species prediction. However, the effort and cost of aerial surveys are not always in proportion with the prediction quality, especially when the species distribution follows zonal patterns, and elevation information yields similar results.