Refine
Has Fulltext
- yes (16)
Is part of the Bibliography
- yes (16)
Document Type
- Doctoral Thesis (16)
Keywords
- Arzneimitteldesign (2)
- Aurora-A (2)
- Gephyrin (2)
- Protein-Protein-Wechselwirkung (2)
- Wirkstoffdesign (2)
- gephyrin (2)
- p97 (2)
- 7,8-Dihydroxyflavon (1)
- 7,8-dihydroxyflavone (1)
- Actin cytoskeleton-related protein (1)
Institute
- Graduate School of Life Sciences (15)
- Rudolf-Virchow-Zentrum (5)
- Fakultät für Chemie und Pharmazie (1)
- Institut für Pharmakologie und Toxikologie (1)
- Institut für Pharmazie und Lebensmittelchemie (1)
- Julius-von-Sachs-Institut für Biowissenschaften (1)
- Lehrstuhl für Biochemie (1)
- Theodor-Boveri-Institut für Biowissenschaften (1)
Die AAA+ ATPase p97 ist ein essenzielles Protein, das an einer Vielzahl zellulärer Prozesse beteiligt ist und eine Schlüsselrolle in der Protein-Homöostase spielt. Die funktionale Diversität von p97 beruht auf der Interaktion zahlreicher unterschiedlicher Kofaktoren, die vorwiegend an die N-Domäne von p97 binden. Aufgrund seiner Bedeutung in der Regulierung diverser physiologischer und pathologischer Prozesse stellt p97 eine interessante Zielstruktur für die Entwicklung neuer Wirkstoffe dar, die insbesondere in der Krebstherapie von Bedeutung sein könnte. Bekannte p97-Inhibitoren greifen vor allem die ATPase-Funktion des Proteins an. Ein neuer pharmakologischer Ansatz stellt die Inhibierung der Kofaktorbindung an die N-Domäne dar. Ein solcher Protein-Protein-Interaktionsinhibitor wäre nicht nur von therapeutischem Interesse, sondern hätte auch einen besonderen Nutzen für die Entschlüsselung molekularer und zellulärer Funktionen von p97-Kofaktoren. In dieser Arbeit wurde ein fragmentbasierter Ansatz für die Identifizierung von chemischen Startstrukturen für die Entwicklung eines Protein-Protein- Interaktionsinhibitors verfolgt. Als Zielstruktur wurde die SHP-Bindestelle in der N-Domäne gewählt. Die Identifizierung von Liganden erfolgte sowohl durch computergestützte Methoden (insbesondere virtuelles Screening und Molekulardynamik-Simulationen) als auch experimentell durch biophysikalische Techniken (wie Biolayer-Interferometrie, Röntgenstrukturanalyse und ligandbasierte NMR-Techniken). Die Grundlage des computerbasierten Designs stellte eine Analyse der bekannten Kristallstrukturen der p97-Komplexe mit den SHP-Motiven der Kofaktoren UFD1 und Derlin-1 dar. Darüber hinaus dienten Molekulardynamik-Simulationen der Analyse der Wassereigenschaften innerhalb der SHP-Bindestelle. Darauf aufbauend wurden verschiedene Pharmakophormodelle entwickelt, die die Grundlage des im Anschluss durchgeführten virtuellen Screenings und Dockings bildeten. Anhand der Ergebnisse von Molekulardynamik-Simulationen wurden zehn Verbindungen für die experimentelle Validierung ausgewählt. Hiervon konnten zwei Fragmente in STD-NMR- und Biolayer-Interferometrie-Experimenten als Liganden bestätigt werden. In einem parallel durchgeführten biophysikalischen Fragmentscreening mittels Biolayer-Interferometrie wurden unter mehr als 650 Verbindungen 22 identifiziert, die an die N-Domäne binden. 15 dieser Fragmente wurden durch einen orthogonalen STD-NMR-Assay bestätigt. Fünf dieser Verbindungen zeigten Affinitäten mit KD-Werten kleiner 500μMund günstigen Ligandeffizienzen. Des Weiteren konnte die Bindungskinetik und Affinität des in der Literatur als p97-Inhibitor berichteten Naturstoffes Xanthohumol bestimmt und eine Bindung an die N-Domäne bestätigt werden. Zur Identifizierung möglicher Bindestellen dieser fünf Fragmente wurden mixed-solvent Molekulardynamik-Simulationen durchgeführt. Diese ergaben, dass alle Verbindungen die SHP-Bindestelle in der N-Domäne adressieren. Die Regionen fielen mit hot spots der Kofaktorwechselwirkungen zusammen und stellen somit mögliche Ankerpunkte für die Weiterentwicklung dar. Für zwei Fragmente konnten die postulierten Bindestellen mittels Röntgenstrukturanalyse bzw. STD-NMR-Messungen an p97-Alanin-Mutanten bestätigt werden. Die erhaltene Röntgenstruktur ist die erste p97-Struktur, die ein gebundenes Fragment an der N-Domäne zeigt.
N-MYC is a member of the human MYC proto-oncogene family, which comprises three transcription factors (C-, N- and L-MYC) that function in multiple biological processes. Deregulated expression of MYC proteins is linked to tumour initiation, maintenance and progression. For example, a large fraction of neuroblastoma displays high N-MYC levels due to an amplification of the N-MYC encoding gene. MYCN-amplified neuroblastoma depend on high N-MYC protein levels, which are maintained by Aurora-A kinase. Aurora-A interaction with N-MYC interferes with degradation of N-MYC via the E3 ubiquitin ligase SCFFBXW7. However, the underlying mechanism of Aurora-A-mediated stabilisation of N-MYC remains to be elucidated.
To identify novel N-MYC interacting proteins, which could be involved in N-MYC stabilisation by Aurora-A, a proteomic analysis of purified N-MYC protein complexes was conducted. Since two alanine mutations in MBI of N-MYC, T58A and S62A (N-MYC mut), disable Aurora-A-mediated stabilisation of N-MYC, N-MYC protein complexes from cells expressing either N-MYC wt or mut were analysed. Proteomic analysis revealed that N-MYC interacts with two deubiquitinating enzymes, USP7 and USP11, which catalyse the removal of ubiquitin chains from target proteins, preventing recognition by the proteasome and subsequent degradation. Although N-MYC interaction with USP7 and USP11 was confirmed in subsequent immunoprecipitation experiments, neither USP7, nor USP11 was shown to be involved in the regulation of N-MYC stability. Besides USP7/11, proteomic analyses identified numerous additional N-MYC interacting proteins that were not described to interact with MYC transcription factors previously. Interestingly, many of the identified N-MYC interaction partners displayed a preference for the interaction with N-MYC wt, suggesting a MBI-dependent interaction. Among these were several proteins, which are involved in three-dimensional organisation of chromatin domains and transcriptional elongation by POL II. Not only the interaction of N-MYC with proteins functioning in elongation, such as the DSIF component SPT5 and the PAF1C components CDC73 and CTR9, was validated in immunoprecipitation experiments, but also with the POL III transcription factor TFIIIC and topoisomerases TOP2A/B. ChIP-sequencing analysis of N-MYC and TFIIIC subunit 5 (TFIIIC5) revealed a large number of joint binding sites in POL II promoters and intergenic regions, which are characterised by the presence of a specific motif that is highly similar to the CTCF motif. Additionally, N-MYC was shown to interact with the ring-shaped cohesin complex that is known to bind to CTCF motifs and to assist the insulator protein CTCF. Importantly, individual ChIP experiments demonstrated that N-MYC, TFIIIC5 and cohesin subunit RAD21 occupy joint binding sites comprising a CTCF motif.
Collectively, the results indicate that N-MYC functions in two biological processes that have not been linked to MYC biology previously. Furthermore, the identification of joint binding sites of N-MYC, TFIIIC and cohesin and the confirmation of their interaction with each other suggests a novel function of MYC transcription factors in three-dimensional organisation of chromatin.
Structural and Biochemical Characterization of the GABA(A) Receptor Interacting Protein Muskelin
(2015)
In a study from 2011, the protein muskelin was described as a central coordinator of the retrograde transport of GABA(A) receptors in neurons. As muskelin governs the transport along actin filaments as well as microtubules, it might be the first representative of a novel class of regulators, which coordinate cargo transport across the borders of these two independent systems of transport paths and their associated motorproteins. To establish a basis for understanding the mode of operation of muskelin, the aim of this thesis was an in-depth biochemical and structural characterization of muskelin and its interaction with the GABA(A) receptor.
One focus of the work was the analysis of the oligomerization of muskelin. As could be demonstrated, the oligomerization is based on two independent interactions mediated by different domains of the protein: a known interaction of the N-terminal discoidin domain with the C-terminal portion, termed head-to-tail interaction, and a dimerization of the LisH motif in muskelin that was so far neglected in the literature. For the detailed studies of both binding events, the solution of a crystal structure of a fragment of muskelin, comprising the Discoidin domain and the LisH motif, was an important basis. The fragment crystallized as a dimer, with dimerization being mediated solely by the LisH motif. Biochemical analysis corroborated that the LisH motif in muskelin serves as a dimerization element, and, moreover, showed that the C-terminal domain of the protein substantially stabilizes this dimerization. In addition, the crystal structure revealed the molecular composition of the surface of the head in the head-to-tail interaction, namely the discoidin domain. This information enabled to map the amino acids contributing to binding, which showed that the binding site of the head-to-tail interaction coincides with the generic ligand binding site of the discoidin domain.
As part of the analyses, residues that are critical for LisH-dimerization and the head-to-tail binding, respectively, were identified, whose mutation specifically interfered with each of the interactions separately. These mutations allowed to investigate the interplay of these interactions during oligomerization. It could be shown that recombinant muskelin assembles into a tetramer to which both interactions, the LisH-dimerization and the head-to-tail binding, contribute independently. When one of the two interactions was disturbed, only a dimer mediated via the respective other interaction could be formed; when both interactions were disturbed, the protein was present as monomer. Furthermore, Frank Heisler in the group of Matthias Kneussel was able to show the drastic impact of an impaired LisH-dimerization on muskelin in cells using these mutations. Disturbing the LisH-dimerization led to a complete redistribution of the originally cytoplasmic muskelin to the nucleus which was accompanied by a severe impairment of its function during GABA(A) receptor transport. Following up on these results in an analysis of muskelin variants, for which alterations of the subcellular localization had been published earlier, the crucial influence of LisH-dimerization to the subcellular localization and thereby the role of muskelin in the cell was confirmed.
The biochemical studies of the interaction of muskelin and the alpha1 subunit of the GABA(A) receptor demonstrated a direct binding with an affinity in the low micromolar range, which is mediated primarily by the kelch repeat domain in muskelin. For the binding site on the GABA(A) receptor, it was confirmed that the thirteen most C-terminal residues of the intracellular domain are critical for the binding of muskelin. In accordance with the strong conservation of these residues among the alpha subunits of the GABA(A) receptor, it could be shown that an interaction with muskelin in vitro is also possible for the alpha2 and alpha5 subunits. Based on the comparison of the binding sites between the homologous subunits, tentative conclusions can be drawn about the details of the binding, which may serve as a starting point for follow-up studies.
This thesis thereby makes valuable contributions to the understanding of muskelin, in particular the significance of its oligomerization. It furthermore provides an experimental framework for future studies that address related topics, such as the characterization of other muskelin interaction partners, or the questions raised in this work.
Die Interaktion des onkogenen Transkriptionsfaktors MYCN mit der Ser/Thr Kinase Aurora-A verhindert
dessen Abbau über das Ubiquitin Proteasomsystem indem die Rekrutierung des SCF FbxW7 Komplexes
verhindert wird. Die Kinase nimmt mit der Bindung an MYCN eine aktive Konformation ein und erhält
somit die Fähigkeit zur Kinaseaktivität ohne die sonst notwendige Phosphorylierung von Thr288 oder
die Anwesenheit eines Aktivators wie TPX2. Da hohe MYCN Konzentrationen Tumore wie
Neuroblastome antreiben, ist die Störung der Komplexbildung mit Aurora-A eine valide Strategie zur
Entwicklung von Chemotherapeutika. Einige Inhibitoren von Aurora-A wie Alisertib (MLN8237) sind in
der Lage, eine Konformationsänderung in der Kinase zu verursachen, die mit der Bindung von MYCN
inkompatibel ist und auf diese Weise den Abbau des Transkriptionsfaktors induziert. Da Aurora-A
wichtige Funktionen in der Mitose übernimmt, könnte eine direkte Adressierung des Komplexes anstelle
einer systemischen Inhibition der Kinase vielversprechender sein.
Ziel des Projektes war die Identifizierung von Molekülen, die selektiv an das Interface des
Aurora-A – MYCN Komplexes binden und weiter optimiert werden können, um einen gezielten Abbau
des Transkriptionsfaktors über einen PROTAC Ansatz zu ermöglichen. Virtuelle Screenings und
molekulardynamische Simulationen wurden durchgeführt, um kommerziell erhältliche Verbindungen zu
identifizieren, welche mit einer Bindetasche des Komplexes interagieren, die nur zustande kommt, wenn
beide Proteine miteinander interagieren. Aus einem ersten Set von zehn potentiellen Liganden wurde
für vier eine selektive Interaktion mit dem Protein – Protein Komplex gegenüber Aurora-A oder MYCN
alleine in STD-NMR Experimenten bestätigt. Zwei der Hits besaßen ein identisches Grundgerüst und
wurden als Ausganspunkt für die Optimierung zu potenteren Liganden genutzt. Das Gerüst wurde
fragmentweise vergrößert und in Richtung besserer in-silico Ergebnisse und Funktionalisierung zur
Anbringung von E3-Ligase-Liganden optimiert. Neun dieser Liganden der zweiten Generation wurden
synthetisiert.
Um quantitative Bindungsdaten zu erhalten, wurde ein kovalent verknüpftes Aurora-A – MYCN
Konstrukt entworfen. Die strukturelle und funktionale Integrität wurde in STD-NMR und BLI
Experimenten mit bekannten Aurora-A Inhibitoren bestätigt, sowie in NMR-basierten ATPase Assays.
Zusätzlich konnte die Kristallstruktur des Konstrukts gelöst und damit die Validität des Designs bestätigt
werden. Quantitative Messungen der synthetisierten Moleküle identifizierten HD19S als Hit mit einer
zehnfach höheren Affinität für das Aurora-A – MYCN Konstrukt im Vergleich zu der Kinase allein.
Zusätzlich wurden in-silico Untersuchungen zu PROTACs der Aurora-A Kinase durchgeführt.
Interaktionen zwischen Aurora-A, der E3-Ligase Cereblon und den Liganden wurden modelliert und für
die Erklärung unterschiedlicher Aktivitäten der eingesetzten PROTACs verwendet. Zudem zeigte das
aktivste PROTAC eine hohe Selektivität für Aurora-A gegenüber Aurora-B, obwohl die verwendete
Erkennungseinheit (Alisertib) an beide Aurora-Proteine bindet. Dieser Umstand konnte durch
energetische Analysen von molekulardynamischen Simulationen der ternären Komplexe erklärt werden.
Optimierungsmöglichkeiten für eine effizientere Degradation von Aurora-A durch die PROTACs wurden
basierend auf modifizierten Erkennungseinheiten und verbesserten Linkern untersucht.
MicroRNAs are endogenous ≈22 nt long non coding RNA molecules that modulate gene expression
at the post transcriptional level by targeting mRNAs for cleavage or translational repression.
MicroRNA-mRNA interaction involves a contiguous and perfect pairing within complementary
sites usually in the 3’ UTR of the target mRNA. Heart failure is associated with myocyte
hypertrophy and death, due to compensatory pathological remodeling and minimal functional repair
along with microRNA deregulation.
In this study, we identified candidate microRNAs based on their expression strength in
cardiomyocytes and by their ability to regulate hypertrophy. Expression profiling from early and
late stages of heart failure showed several deregulated microRNAs. Of these microRNAs, miR-378
emerged as a potentially interesting microRNA that was highly expressed in the mouse heart and
downregulated in the failing heart. Antihypertrophic activity of miR-378 was first observed by
screening a synthetic miR library for morphologic effects on cardiomyocytes, and validated in vitro proving the tight control of hypertrophy by this miR. We combined bioinformatic target prediction analysis and microarray analysis to identify the targets of miR-378. These analyses suggested that factors of the MAP kinase pathway were enriched among miR-378 targets, namely MAPK1 itself (also termed ERK2), the insulin-like growth factor receptor 1 (IGF1R), growth factor receptor bound protein 2 (GRB2) and kinase suppressor of ras 1 (KSR1). Regulation of these targets by miR-378 was then confirmed by mRNA and protein expression analysis. The use of luciferase reporter constructs with natural or mutated miR-378 binding sites further validated these four proteins as direct targets of miR-378. RNA interference with MAPK1 and the other three targets prevented the prohypertrophic effect of antimiR-378, suggesting that they functionally relate to miR-378. In vivo restoration of disease induced loss of miR-378 in a pressure overload mouse model of hypertrophy using adeno associated virus resulted in partial attenuation cardiac hypertrophy and significant improvement in cardiac function along with reduced expression of the four targets in heart.
We conclude from these findings that miR-378 is an antihypertrophic microRNA in cardiomyocytes, and the main mechanism underlying this effect is the suppression of the MAP kinase-signaling pathway on four distinct levels. Restoration of disease-associated loss of miR-378 through cardiomyocyte-targeted AAV-miR-378 may prove as an effective therapeutic strategy in myocardial disease.
The nervous system relies on an orchestrated assembly of complex cellular entities called neurons, which are specifically committed to information management and transmission. Inter-neuronal communication takes place via synapses, membrane-membrane junctions which ensure efficient signal transfer. Synaptic neurotransmission involves release of presynaptic neurotransmitters and their reception by cognate receptors at postsynaptic terminals. Inhibitory neurotransmission is primarily mediated by the release of neurotransmitters GABA (γ-Aminobutyric acid) and glycine, which are precisely sensed by GABA type-A receptors (GABAARs) and glycine receptors (GlyRs), respectively. GABAAR assembly and maintenance is coordinated by various postsynaptic neuronal factors including the scaffolding protein gephyrin, the neuronal adaptor collybistin (CB) and cell adhesion proteins of the neuroligin (NL) family, specifically NL2 and NL4.
At inhibitory postsynaptic specializations, gephyrin has been hypothesized to form extended structures underneath the plasma membrane, where its interaction with the receptors leads to their stabilization and impedes their lateral movement. Gephyrin mutations have been associated with various brain disorders, including autism, schizophrenia, Alzheimer’s disease, and epilepsy. Furthermore, gephyrin loss is lethal and causes mice to die within the first post-natal day. Gephyrin recruitment from intracellular deposits to postsynaptic membranes primarily relies on the adaptor protein CB.
As a moonlighting protein, CB, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF), also catalyzes a nucleotide exchange reaction, thereby regenerating the GTP-bound state of the small GTPase Cdc42 from its GDP-bound form. The CB gene undergoes alternative splicing with the majority of CB splice variants featuring an N-terminal SH3 domain followed by tandem Dbl-homology (DH) and pleckstrin-homology (PH) domains. Previous studies demonstrated that the most widely expressed, SH3-domain containing splice variant (CB2SH3+) preferentially adopts a closed conformation, in which the N-terminally located SH3 domain forms intra-molecular interaction with the DH-PH domain tandem. Previous cell-based studies indicated that SH3 domain-encoding CB variants remain untargeted and colocalize with intracellular gephyrin deposits and hence require additional factors which interact with the SH3 domain, thus inducing an open or active conformation. The SH3 domain-deficient CB isoform (CB2SH3-), on the contrary, adopts an open conformation, which possess enhanced postsynaptic gephyrin-clustering and also effectively replenishes the GTP-bound small GTPase-Cdc42 from its GDP-bound state.
Despite the fundamental role of CB as a neuronal adaptor protein maintaining the proper function of inhibitory GABAergic synapses, its interactions with the neuronal scaffolding protein gephyrin and other post synaptic neuronal factors remain poorly understood. Moreover, CB interaction studies with the small GTPase Cdc42 and TC10, a closely related member of Cdc42 subfamily, remains poorly characterized. Most importantly, the roles of the neuronal factors and small GTPases in CB conformational activation have not been elucidated.
This PhD dissertation primarily focuses on delineating the molecular basis of the interactions between CB and postsynaptic neuronal factors. During the course of my PhD dissertation, I engineered a series of CB FRET (Förster Resonance Energy Transfer) sensors to characterize the CB interaction with its binding partners along with outlining their role in CB conformational activation. Through the aid of these CB FRET sensors, I analyzed the gephyrin-CB interaction, which, due to technical limitations remained unaddressed for more than two decades (refer Chapter 2 for more details). Subsequently, I also unraveled the molecular basis of the interactions between CB and the neuronal cell adhesion factor neuroligin 2 (refer chapter 2) and the small GTPases Cdc42 and TC10 (refer chapter 3) and describe how these binding partners induce a conformational activation of CB.
In summary, this PhD dissertation provides strong evidence of a closely knit CB communication network with gephyrin, neuroligin and the small GTPase TC10, wherein CB activation from closed/inactive to open/active states is effectively triggered by these ligands.
Neurons are specialized cells dedicated to transmit the nerve impulses throughout the human body across specialized structures called synapses. At the synaptic terminals, a crosstalk between multiple macromolecules regulates the structure and function of the presynaptic nerve endings and the postsynaptic recipient sites.
Gephyrin is the central organizer at inhibitory postsynaptic specializations and plays a crucial role in the organization of these structures by anchoring GABAA receptors (GABAAR) and glycine receptors (GlyR) to the postsynaptic membrane. This 93 kDa protein features an N-terminal G domain and a C-terminal E domain and the latter interacts directly with the intracellular loop between transmembrane helices 3 and 4 of certain subunits of the GlyRs and GABAARs. Biochemical and structural analyses have already provided valuable insights into the gephyrin-GlyR interaction. Interestingly, biochemical studies on the gephyrin-GABAAR interaction demonstrated that the GABAARs also depend on the same binding site as the GlyRs for the interaction with the gephyrin, but the molecular basis for this receptor specific interaction of gephyrin was still unknown. Co-crystal structures of GephE-GABAAR α3- derived peptides with supporting biochemical data presented in this study deciphered the receptor-specific interactions of gephyrin in atomic detail.
In its moonlighting function, gephyrin also catalyzes the terminal step of the evolutionarily conserved molybdenum cofactor biosynthesis. Molybdenum, an essential transition element has to be complexed with a pterin-based cofactor resulting in the formation of the molybdenum cofactor (Moco). Moco is an essential component at the active site of all molybdenum-containing enzymes with the exception of nitrogenase. Mutations in enzymes involved in this pathway lead to a rare yet severe disease called Moco deficiency, which manifest itself in severe neurodevelopmental abnormalities and early childhood death. Moco biosynthesis follows a complex multistep pathway, where in the penultimate step, the N-terminal G domain of gephyrin activates the molybdopterin to form an adenylated molybdopterin intermediate. In the terminal step, this intermediate is then transferred to the C-terminal E domain of gephyrin, which catalyzes the metal insertion and deadenylation reaction to form active Moco. Previous biochemical and structural studies provided valuable insights into the penultimate step of the Moco biosynthesis but the terminal step remained elusive. Through the course of my dissertation, I crystallized the C-terminal E domain in the apo-form as well as in complex with ADP and AMP. These structures shed lightonto the deadenylation reaction and the formation of a ternary E-domain-ADP-Mo/W complex and thus provide structural insight into the metal insertion mechanism. Moreover, the structures also provided molecular insights into a mutation leading to Moco deficiency. Finally, ternary
complexes of GephE, ADP and receptor-derived peptides provided first clues regarding the integration of gephyrin’s dual functionality.
In summary, during the course of the dissertation I was able to derive high resolution structural insights into the interactions between gephyrin and GABAARs, which explain the receptor-specific interaction of gephyrin and, furthermore, these studies can be extended in the future to understand GABAAR subunit-specific interactions of gephyrin. Finally, the understanding of Moco biosynthesis shed light on the molecular basis of the fatal Moco deficiency.
p97 uses the energy of ATP hydrolysis to unfold and thereby segregate proteins. It is involved in various cellular processes such as proteasomal degradation, DNA damage repair, autophagy, and endo-lysosomal trafficking. The specificity for these processes is controlled by more than 30 regulatory cofactors.
Interactions of p97 with cofactors and target proteins are known to be highly dynamic and transient. To identify new interaction partners and to uncover novel cellular functions of p97, the interactome of endogenous p97 was determined by using in cellulo crosslinking followed by immunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry. Myoferlin (MYOF) was identified as a novel interactor of p97 and the interaction was validated in reciprocal immunoprecipitation experiments for different cell lines.
The ferlin family member MYOF is a tail-anchored membrane protein containing multiple C2 domains. MYOF is involved in various membrane repair and trafficking processes such as the endocytic recycling of cell surface receptors. The MYOF interactome was determined by mass spectrometry. Among others, the p97 cofactor PLAA, CD71 and Rab14 were identified as common interactors of p97 and MYOF. Immunoprecipitation experiments with PLAA KO cells revealed that the interaction between MYOF and p97 depends on PLAA. Immunofluorescence microscopy showed a co-localization of MYOF with Rab14 and Rab11, which are both involved in endocytic recycling pathways. Furthermore, immunofluoroscence experiments revealed that MYOF and the p97 cofactor PLAA are localized to Rab14- and Rab5-positive endosomal compartments.
Using p97 inhibitors and p97 trapping mutants, the presence of p97 at MYOF-positive and Rab14-positive structures could be demonstrated. Consistent with this finding, the endocytic recycling of transferrin was delayed upon inhibition of p97. Taken together, this work identified MYOF as a novel interactor of p97 and suggests a role for p97 in the recycling of endocytic cargo.
The ubiquitination of proteins serves as molecular signal to control an enormous number of physiological processes and its dysregulation is connected to human diseases like cancer. The versatility of this signal stems from the diverse ways by which ubiquitin can be attached to its targets. Thus, specificity and tight regulation of the ubiquitination are pivotal requirements of ubiquitin signaling. Ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes (E2s) act at the heart of the ubiquitination cascade, transferring ubiquitin from a ubiquitin-activating enzyme (E1) to a ubiquitin ligase (E3) or substrate. When cooperating with a RING-type E3, ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes can determine linkage specificity in ubiquitin chain formation. Our understanding of the regulation of E2 activities is still limited at a structural level.
The work described here identifies two regulation mechanisms in UBE2S, a cognate E2 of the human RING-type E3 anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C). UBE2S elongates ubiquitin chains on APC/C substrates in a Lys11 linkage-specific manner, thereby targeting these substrates for degradation and driving mitotic progression. In addition, UBE2S was found to have a role in DNA repair by enhancing non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) and causing transcriptional arrest at DNA damage sites in homologous recombination (HR). Furthermore, UBE2S overexpression is a characteristic feature of many cancer types and is connected to poor prognosis and diminished response to therapy.
The first regulatory mechanism uncovered in this thesis involves the intramolecular auto-ubiquitination of a particular lysine residue (Lys+5) close to the active site cysteine, presumably through conformational flexibility of the active site region. The Lys+5-linked ubiquitin molecule adopts a donor-like, ‘closed’ orientation towards UBE2S, thereby conferring auto-inhibition. Notably, Lys+5 is a major physiological ubiquitination site in ~25% of the human E2 enzymes, thus providing regulatory opportunities beyond UBE2S. Besides the active, monomeric state and the auto-inhibited state caused by auto-ubiquitination, I discovered that UBE2S can adopt a dimeric state. The latter also provides an auto-inhibited state, in which ubiquitin transfer is blocked via the obstruction of donor binding. UBE2S dimerization is promoted by its unique C-terminal extension, suppresses auto-ubiquitination and thereby the proteasomal degradation of UBE2S.
Taken together, the data provided in this thesis illustrate the intricate ways by which UBE2S activity is fine-tuned and the notion that structurally diverse mechanisms have evolved to restrict the first step in the catalytic cycle of E2 enzymes.
Knowing then defeating: The Ubiquitin activating enzyme, a promising target for cancer therapy
(2020)
Ubiquitin is a 76 amino acid long polypeptide, which is present throughout eukaryotes in a highly conserved fashion. Ubiquitin can modify proteins by becoming covalently attached to them. Eukaryotic cells employ ubiquitin to maintain and regulate fundamental cellular processes like protein degradation, the immune response and transcriptional and translational regulation. Transfer of ubiquitin to the substrate is achieved by the catalysis of three classes of enzymes namely E1, E2 and E3. Together these enzymes form a pyramidal hierarchy, where E1 stands at the apex and E3 enzymes form the base of the pathway.
The ubiquitin activating enzyme 1 (UBA1) plays a major role in ubiquitylation being the ubiquitin-dedicated E1 enzyme. In addition, it is the only enzyme in this pathway to use ATP as an energy source to catalyze two important reactions. The products of these reactions, ubiquitin adenylate and ubiquitin thioester, are the essential intermediate states of ubiquitin, for being conjugated to the target protein. With the help of X-ray crystallography and biochemical approaches, snapshots of multiple catalytic states of UBA1, where it is bound to Mg-ATP, ubiquitin and the E2 Ubc13 as substrates could be captured. With the help of these high-resolution crystal structures, deeper insights into the enzymatic mechanism of UBA1 could be attained. The resulting insights into the catalytic cycle were further validated by biochemical assays. It could be shown that ATP acts as a molecular switch to induce the enzyme’s open conformation. Ubiquitin-binding to the enzyme leads to domain rotations, which facilitate the recruitment of a cognate E2 enzyme. The interdomain communication as well as the cross-talk with the substrates and the products fuel the enzymatic cycle of UBA1.
Due to the proven efficacy of proteasome inhibitors for cancer treatment, which block degradation of proteins labeled with ubiquitin, enzymes participating in the ubiquitylation cascade have been targeted by researchers for the development of novel anti-cancer therapeutics. UBA1 inhibition has been shown to preferentially induce cell death in malignant cells, and it can also be used as a strategy to overcome resistance against proteasome inhibitors. MLN7243, an adenosyl sulfamate inhibitor developed by Millenium Pharmaceutical to specifically target UBA1, is currently in Phase-I clinical trials for the treatment of solid tumors. UBA1 could be crystallized in complex with three adenosyl sulfamate inhibitors covalently linked to ubiquitin, which are promising drug candidates for cancer therapy. The inhibitors employed, MLN7243, MLN4924 and ABPA3, show distinct specificities towards different E1 enzymes. With the help of crystal structures the specificity determinants of these inhibitors could be deciphered, which were further confirmed by inhibition assays as well as molecular dynamics simulations. Together these crystal structures provide a starting point for developing E1-specific inhibitors, which, besides their potential for medicinal purposes, are important tools to better understand the function of the ubiquitin system as well as the action of ubiquitin-like proteins.