Fakultät für Biologie
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Humans are continuously exposed to airborne spores of the saprophytic fungus Aspergillus fumigatus. In healthy individuals, local pulmonary host defence mechanisms can efficiently eliminate the fungus without any overt symptoms. In contrast, A. fumigatus causes devastating infections in immunocompromised patients. However, local host immune responses against A. fumigatus lung infections in immunocompromised conditions have remained largely elusive.
Given the dynamic changes in immune cell subsets within tissues upon immunosuppressive therapy, we dissected the spatiotemporal pulmonary immune response after A. fumigatus infection to reveal basic immunological events that fail to effectively control the invasive fungal disease. In different immunocompromised murine models, myeloid but not lymphoid cells were strongly recruited upon infection. Notably, neutrophils and macrophages were recruited to infected lungs in different immunosuppressed regimens. Other myeloid cells, particularly dendritic cells and monocytes were only recruited in the corticosteroid model after infection. Lymphoid cells, particularly CD4+ or CD8+ T-cells and NK cells were highly reduced upon immunosuppression and were not recruited after A. fumigatus infection. Importantly, adoptive CD11b+ myeloid cell transfer rescued immunosuppressed mice from lethal A. fumigatus infection. These findings illustrate that CD11b+ myeloid cells are critical for anti-A. fumigatus defence under immunocompromised conditions.
Despite improved antifungal agents, invasive A. fumigatus lung infections cause a high rate morbidity and mortality in neutropenic patients. Granulocyte transfusions have been tested as an alternative therapy for the management of high-risk neutropenic patients with invasive A. fumigatus infections. To increase the granulocyte yield for transfusion, donors are treated with corticosteroids. Yet, the efficacy of granulocyte transfusion and the functional defence mechanisms of granulocytes collected from corticosteroid treated donors remain largely elusive.
We aimed to assess the efficacy of granulocyte transfusion and functional defence mechanisms of corticosteroid treated granulocytes using mouse models.
In this thesis, we show that transfusion of granulocytes from corticosteroid treated mice did not protect cyclophosphamide immunosuppressed mice against lethal A. fumigatus infection in contrast to granulocytes from untreated mice. Upon infection, increased levels of inflammatory cytokines helped to recruit granulocytes to the lungs without any recruitment defects in corticosteroid treated and infected mice or in cyclophosphamide immunosuppressed and infected mice that have received the granulocytes from corticosteroid treated mice. However, corticosteroid treated human or mouse neutrophils failed to form neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) in in vitro and in vivo conditions. Further, corticosteroid treated granulocytes exhibited impaired ROS production against A. fumigatus. Notably, corticosteroids impaired the β-glucan receptor Dectin-1 (CLEC7A) on mouse and human granulocytes to efficiently recognize and phagocytize A. fumigatus, which markedly impaired fungal killing. We conclude that corticosteroid treatment of granulocyte donors for increasing neutrophil yields or patients with ongoing corticosteroid treatment could result in deleterious effects on granulocyte antifungal functions, thereby limiting the benefit of granulocyte transfusion therapies against invasive fungal infections.
The superfamiliy of bees, Apiformes, comprises more than 20,000 species. Within the group, the eusocial species like honeybees and bumblebees are receiving increased attention due to their outstanding importance for pollination of many crop and wild plants, their exceptional eusocial lifestyle and complex behavioral repertoire, which makes them an interesting invertebrate model to study mechanisms of sensory perception, learning and memory. In bees and most animals, vision is one of the major senses since almost every living organism and many biological processes depend on light energy. Bees show various forms of vision, e.g. color vision, achromatic vision or polarized vision in order to orientate in space, recognize mating partners, detect suitable nest sites and search for rewarding food sources. To catch photons and convert light energy into electric signals, bees possess compound eyes which consists of thousands of single ommatidia comprising a fixed number of photoreceptors; they are characterized by a specific opsin protein with distinct spectral sensitivity. Different visual demands, e.g. the detection of a single virgin queen by a drone, or the identification and discrimination of flowers during foraging bouts by workers, gave rise to the exceptional sex-specific morphology and physiology of male and female compound eyes in honeybees. Since Karl von Frisch first demonstrated color vision in honeybees more than 100 years ago, much effort has been devoted to gain insight into the molecular, morphological and physiological characteristics of (sex-specific) bee compound eyes and the corresponding photoreceptors. However, to date, almost nothing is known about the underlying mechanisms during pupal development which pattern the retina and give rise to the distinct photoreceptor distribution. Hence, in Chapter 2 and 3 I aimed to better understand the retinal development and photoreceptor determination in the honeybee eye. In a first step, the intrinsic temporal expression pattern of opsins within the retina was evaluated by quantifying opsin mRNA expression levels during the pupal phase of honeybee workers and drones. First results revealed that honeybee workers and drones express three different opsin genes, UVop, BLop and Lop1 during pupal development which give rise to an ultraviolet, blue, and green-light sensitive photoreceptor. Moreover, opsin expression patterns differed between both sexes and the onset of a particular opsin occurred at different time points during retinal development. Immunostainings of the developing honeybee retina in Chapter 2 showed that at the beginning of pupation the retina consist only of a thin hypodermis. However, at this stage all retinal structures are already present. From about mid of pupation, opsin expression levels increase and goes hand in hand with the differentiation of the rhabdoms, suggesting a two-step process in photoreceptor development and differentiation in the honeybee compound eye. In a first step the photoreceptor cells meet its fate during late pupation; in a second step, the quantity of opsin expression in each photoreceptor strongly increase up to the 25-fold shortly after eclosion. To date, the underlying mechanisms leading to different photoreceptor types have been intensively studied in the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, and to some extend in butterflies. Interestingly, the molecular mechanisms seemed to be conserved within insects and e.g. the two transcription factors, spalt and spineless, which have been shown to be essential for photoreceptor determination in flies and butterflies, have been also identified in the honeybee. In chapter 3, I investigated the expression patterns of both transcription factors during pupal development of honeybee workers and showed that spalt is mainly expressed during the first few pupal stages which might correlate with the onset of BLop expression. Further, spineless showed a prominent peak at mid of pupation which might initiates the expression of Lop1. However, whether spalt and spineless are also essential for photoreceptor determination in the honeybee has still to be investigated, e.g. by a knockdown/out of the respective transcription factor during retinal development which leads to a spectral phenotype, e.g. a dichromatic eye. Such spectral phenotypes can then be tested in behavioral experiments in order to test the function of specific photoreceptors for color perception and the entrainment of the circadian clock. In order to evaluate the color discrimination capabilities of bees and the quality of color perception, a reliable behavioral experiment under controlled conditions is a prerequisite. Hence, in chapter 4, I aimed to establish the visual PER paradigm as a suitable method for behaviorally testing color vision in bees. Since PER color vision has considered to be difficult in bees and was not successful in Western honeybees without ablating the bee’s antennae or presenting color stimuli in combination with other cues for several decades, the experimental setup was first established in bumblebees which have been shown to be robust and reliable, e.g. during electrophysiological recordings. Workers and drones of the bufftailed bumblebee, Bombus terrestris were able to associate different monochromatic light stimuli with a sugar reward and succeeded in discriminating a rewarded color stimulus from an unrewarded color stimulus. They were also able to retrieve the learned stimulus after two hours, and workers successfully transferred the learned information to a new behavioral context. In the next step, the experimental setup was adapted to honeybees. In chapter 5, I tested the setup in two medium-sized honeybees, the Eastern honeybee, Apis cerana and the Western honeybee, Apis mellifera. Both honeybee species were able to associate and discriminate between two monochromatic light stimuli, blue and green light, with peak sensitivities of 435 nm and 528 nm. Eastern and Western honeybees also successfully retrieve the learned stimulus after two hours, similar to the bumblebees. Visual conditioning setups and training protocols in my study significantly differed from previous studies using PER conditioning. A crucial feature found to be important for a successful visual PER conditioning is the duration of the conditioned stimulus presentation. In chapter 6, I systematically tested different length of stimuli presentations, since visual PER conditioning in earlier studies tended to be only successful when the conditioned stimulus is presented for more than 10 seconds. In this thesis, intact honeybee workers could successfully discriminate two monochromatic lights when the stimulus was presented 10 s before reward was offered, but failed, when the duration of stimulus presentation was shorter than 4 s. In order to allow a more comparable conditioning, I developed a new setup which includes a shutter, driven by a PC based software program. The revised setup allows a more precise and automatized visual PER conditioning, facilitating performance levels comparable to olfactory conditioning and providing now an excellent method to evaluate visual perception and cognition of bees under constant and controlled conditions in future studies.
The human-bacterial pathogen interaction is a complex process that results from
a prolonged evolutionary arms race in the struggle for survival. The pathogen employs
virulence strategies to achieve host colonization, and the latter counteracts using defense
programs. The encounter of both organisms results in drastic physiological changes
leading to stress, which is an ancient response accompanying infection. Recent evidence
suggests that the stress response in the host converges with the innate immune pathways
and influences the outcome of infection. However, the contribution of stress and the exact
mechanism(s) of its involvement in host defense remain to be elucidated. Using the model
bacterial pathogen Shigella flexneri, and comparing it with the closely related pathogen
Salmonella Typhimurium, this study investigated the role of host stress in the outcome of
infection.
Shigella infection is characterized by a pronounced pro-inflammatory response
that causes intense stress in host tissues, particularly the intestinal epithelium, which
constitutes the first barrier against Shigella colonization. In this study, inflammatory
stress was simulated in epithelial cells by inducing oxidative stress, hypoxia, and cytokine
stimulation. Shigella infection of epithelial cells exposed to such stresses was strongly
inhibited at the adhesion/binding stage. This resulted from the depletion of sphingolipidrafts
in the plasma membrane by the stress-activated sphingomyelinases. Interestingly,
Salmonella adhesion was not affected, by virtue of its flagellar motility, which allowed the
gathering of bacteria at remaining membrane rafts. Moreover, the intracellular replication
of Shigella lead to a similar sphingolipid-raft depletion in the membrane across adjacent
cells inhibiting extracellular bacterial invasion.
Additionally, this study shows that Shigella infection interferes with the host stress
granule-formation in response to stress. Interestingly, infected cells exhibited a nuclear
depletion of the global RNA-binding stress-granule associated proteins TIAR and TIA-1
and their accumulation in the cytoplasm.
Overall, this work investigated different aspects of the host stress-response in the
defense against bacterial infection. The findings shed light on the importance of the host
stress-pathways during infection, and improve the understanding of different strategies
in host-pathogen interaction.
Besides a growing tendency for delayed parenthood, sedentary lifestyle coupled with overnutrition has dramatically increased worldwide over the last few decades. Epigenetic mechanisms can help us understand the epidemics and heritability of complex traits like obesity to a significant extent. Majority of the research till now has focused on determining the impact of maternal factors on health and disease risk in the offspring(s).
This doctoral thesis is focused on deciphering the potential effects of male aging and obesity on sperm methylome, and consequences/transmission via germline to the next generation. In humans, this was assessed in a unique cohort of ~300 sperm samples, collected after in vitro fertilization/intracytoplasmic sperm injection, as well as in conceived fetal cord blood samples of the children. Furthermore, aging effect on sperm samples derived from a bovine cohort was analyzed.
The study identified that human male aging significantly increased the DNA methylation levels of the promoter, the upstream core element, the 18S, and the 28S regions of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) in sperm. Prediction models were developed to anticipate an individual’s age based on the methylation status of rDNA regions in his sperm. Hypermethylation of alpha satellite and LINE1 repeats in human sperm was also observed with aging. Epimutations, which are aberrantly methylated CpG sites, were significantly higher in sperm of older males compared to the younger ones. These effects on the male germline had a negative impact on embryo quality of the next generation. Consistent with these results, DNA methylation of rDNA regions, bovine alpha satellite, and testis satellite repeats displayed a significant positive correlation with aging sperm samples within the same individual and across different age-grouped bulls.
A positive association between human male obesity/body mass index (BMI) and DNA methylation of the imprinted MEG3 gene and the obesity-related HIF3A gene was detected in sperm. These BMI-induced sperm DNA methylation signatures were transmitted to next generation fetal cord blood (FCB) samples in a gender-specific manner. Males, but not female offsprings exhibited a significant positive correlation between father’s BMI and FCB DNA methylation in the two above-mentioned amplicons. Additionally, hypomethylation of IGF2 with increased paternal BMI was observed in female FCB samples. Parental allele-specific in-depth methylation analysis of imprinted genes using next generation sequencing technology also revealed significant correlations between paternal factors like age and BMI, and the corresponding father’s allele DNA methylation in FCB samples.
Deep bisulphite sequencing of imprinted genes in diploid somatic cord blood cells of offspring detected that the levels of DNA methylation signatures largely depended on the underlying genetic variant, i.e. sequence haplotypes. Allele-specific epimutations were observed in PEG1, PEG5, MEG3, H19, and IGF2 amplicons. For the former three genes, the non-imprinted unmethylated allele displayed more epimutations than the imprinted methylated allele. On the other hand, for the latter two genes, the imprinted allele exhibited higher epimutation rate than that of the non-imprinted allele.
In summary, the present study proved that male aging and obesity impacts the DNA methylome of repetitive elements and imprinted genes respectively in sperm, and also has considerable consequences on the next generation. Nevertheless, longitudinal follow-up studies are highly encouraged to elucidate if these effects can influence the risk of developing abnormal phenotype in the offspring during adulthood.
The skeletal system forms the mechanical structure of the body and consists of bone, which is hard connective tissue. The tasks the skeleton and bones take over are of mechanical, metabolic and synthetic nature. Lastly, bones enable the production of blood cells by housing the bone marrow. Bone has a scarless self-healing capacity to a certain degree. Injuries exceeding this capacity caused by trauma, surgical removal of infected or tumoral bone or as a result from treatment-related osteonecrosis, will not heal. Critical size bone defects that will not heal by themselves are still object of comprehensive clinical investigation. The conventional treatments often result in therapies including burdening methods as for example the harvesting of autologous bone material. The aim of this thesis was the creation of a prevascularized bone implant employing minimally invasive methods in order to minimize inconvenience for patients and surgical site morbidity. The basis for the implant was a decellularized, naturally derived vascular scaffold (BioVaSc-TERM®) providing functional vessel structures after reseeding with autologous endothelial cells. The bone compartment was built by the combination of the aforementioned scaffold with synthetic β-tricalcium phosphate. In vitro culture for tissue maturation was performed using bioreactor technology before the testing of the regenerative potential of the implant in large animal experiments in sheep. A tibia defect was treated without the anastomosis of the implant’s innate vasculature to the host’s circulatory system and in a second study, with anastomosis of the vessel system in a mandibular defect. While the non-anastomosed implant revealed a mostly osteoconductive effect, the implants that were anastomosed achieved formation of bony islands evenly distributed over the defect.
In order to prepare preconditions for a rapid approval of an implant making use of this vascularization strategy, the manufacturing of the BioVaSc-TERM® as vascularizing scaffold was adjusted to GMP requirements.
Lokalisation und Bedeutung der NO-sensitiven Guanylyl-Cyclase bei der Lungenfibrose in der Maus
(2019)
Die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit behandelten Fragestellungen vermitteln neue Kenntnisse über die Pathogenese der Lungenfibrose auf zellulärer Ebene. Bei der Lungenfibrose handelt es sich um eine chronische Erkrankung, die durch eine initiale Inflammation und das Auftreten von Myofibroblasten gekennzeichnet ist. Die Myofibroblasten führen zu einer vermehrten Produktion von EZM, was in einer Zerstörung der Lungenarchitektur, Narbenbildung und folglich einem verminderten Gasaustausch resultiert. Eine modulatorische Rolle von Stickstoffmonoxid (NO) bei der Entwicklung der Lungenfibrose wird vermutet, dennoch sind die Effektorzellen in der Lunge noch nicht bekannt.
Daher wurde im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit die Lokalisation des NO-Rezeptors, der NO-sensitiven Guanylyl-Cyclase (NO-GC), in der Lunge untersucht. Dazu wurden Knockout-Mäuse generiert, bei denen die NO-GC global (GCKO) oder Perizyten-spezifisch (PDGFRβ-GCKO, SMMHC-GCKO, NG2-GCKO und SMMHC/NG2-GCKO) deletiert ist. Zudem wurden tdTomato-Reportermäuse verwendet, die das Fluoreszenzprotein unter Kontrolle eines spezifischen Reporters exprimieren (PDGFRβ/tomato, SMMHC/tomato, NG2/tomato, FoxD1/tomato und Tie2/tomato). In der Lunge sind Perizyten der NO-GC-exprimierende Zelltyp. Durch Immunhistochemie konnten zudem zwei verschiedene Subpopulationen von NO-GC-exprimierenden Perizyten identifiziert werden: Eine große Population an SMMHC/PDGFRβ-positiven Perizyten und eine kleine Population an NG2/PDGFRβ-positiven Perizyten.
Im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit wurde die Funktion der NO-GC während der Bleomycin-induzierten Lungenfibrose untersucht. Bleomycin führt zu einer fibrotischen Antwort in allen Genotypen, was durch ein erhöhtes Lungengewicht und einen erhöhten Kollagengehalt deutlich wird. Der Schweregrad der Lungenverletzung ist in NO-GC-defizienten Mäusen größer als in Anwesenheit der NO-GC. Dies deutet auf eine Rolle der NO-GC bei der Bleomycin-induzierten Lungenfibrose hin.
Während der Entstehung der Lungenfibrose kommt es zur Bildung von Myofibroblasten, die als die Schlüsselzellen der Wundheilung und fibrotischer Prozesse bezeichnet werden. Diese Zellen kommen unter physiologischen Bedingungen kaum vor und ihre Herkunft ist nach wie vor nicht eindeutig geklärt. Da Perizyten als mögliche Vorläuferzellen betrachtet werden, wurde Lineage Tracing von Perizyten durchgeführt. Erstmals wurden zwei verschiedene Myofibroblasten-Subtypen durch die Expression von NO-GC unterschieden: (1) NO-GC-positive Myofibroblasten, die in der Alveolarwand lokalisiert sind und von Perizyten abstammen und (2) NO-GC-negative Myofibroblasten, die sich innerhalb der Alveolen befinden, deren Ursprung jedoch nicht Perizyten sind. Diese Myofibroblasten zeigen jedoch eine de novo-Synthese von PDGFRβ. Durch Lineage Tracing-Versuche sowie immunhistochemische Analysen können Perizyten, Endothelzellen und Fibrozyten als Vorläuferzellen ausgeschlossen werden. Die Ursprungszelle der intra-alveolären Myofibroblasten ist somit bislang nicht identifiziert.
Im letzten Teil der Arbeit wurde die Rolle der an der Lungenfibrose beteiligten Zelltypen näher untersucht. Dazu wurde die Auflösung der reversiblen Bleomycin-induzierten Lungenschäden betrachtet. Der Verlust der beiden Myofibroblasten-Subtypen weist darauf hin, dass sie zwar die Effektorzellen der Wundheilungsreaktion, jedoch nicht an der Entstehung der chronisch manifesten Fibrose beteiligt sind. Perizyten proliferieren in Folge der Gabe von Bleomycin und sind vermehrt im Lungenparenchym auch nach Auflösung der Bleomycin-induzierten Lungenverletzung vorzufinden. Diese Ergebnisse führen zu der Annahme, dass es sich hierbei um die Effektorzellen der chronisch manifesten Lungenfibrose handelt, die durch eine Verdickung der Alveolarwand gekennzeichnet ist. Um die zellulären Mechanismen der Lungenfibrose umfassend aufzuklären, müssen weitere Untersuchungen an irreversiblen Fibrosemodellen folgen, die auch die chronischen Charakteristiken der Erkrankung berücksichtigen.
Cancer remains after cardiovascular diseases the leading cause of death worldwide and an estimated 8.2 million people died of it in 2012. By 2030, 13 million cancer deaths are expected due to the growth and ageing of the population. Hereof, colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cancer in men and the second in women with a wide geographical variation across the world. Usually, CRC begins as a non-cancerous growth leading to an adenomatous polyp, or adenoma, arising from glandular cells. Since research has brought about better understanding of the mechanisms of cancer development, novel treatments such as targeted therapy have emerged in the past decades. Despite that, up to 95% of anticancer drugs tested in clinical phase I trials do not attain a market authorisation and hence these high attrition rates remain a key challenge for the pharmaceutical industry, making drug development processes enormously costly and inefficient. Therefore, new preclinical in vitro models which can predict drug responses in vivo more precisely are urgently needed. Tissue engineering not only provides the possibility of creating artificial three-dimensional (3D) in vitro tissues, such as functional organs, but also enables the investigation of drug responses in pathological tissue models, that is, in 3D cancer models which are superior to conventional two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures on petri dishes and can overcome the limitations of animal models, thereby reducing the need for preclinical in vivo models. In this thesis, novel 3D CRC models on the basis of a decellularised intestinal matrix were established. In the first part, it could be shown that the cell line SW480 exhibited different characteristics when grown in a 3D environment from those in conventional 2D culture. While the cells showed a mesenchymal phenotype in 2D culture, they displayed a more pronounced epithelial character in the 3D model. By adding stromal cells (fibroblasts), the cancer cells changed their growth pattern and built tumour-like structures together with the fibroblasts, thereby remodelling the natural mucosal structures of the scaffold. Additionally, the established 3D tumour model was used as a test system for treatment with standard chemotherapeutic 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). The second part of the thesis focused on the establishment of a 3D in vitro test system for targeted therapy. The US Food and Drug Administration has already approved of a number of drugs for targeted therapy of specific types of cancer. For instance, the small molecule vemurafenib (PLX4032, Zelboraf™) which demonstrated impressive response rates of 50–80% in melanoma patients with a mutation of the rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma oncogene type B (BRAF) kinase which belongs to the mitogen active protein kinase (MAPK) signalling pathway. However, only 5% of CRC patients harbouring the same BRAF mutation respond to treatment with vemurafenib. An explanation for this unresponsiveness could be a feedback activation of the upstream EGFR, reactivating the MAPK pathway which sustains a proliferative signalling. To test this hypothesis, the two early passage cell lines HROC24 and HROC87, both presenting the mutation BRAF V600E but differing in other mutations, were used and their drug response to vemurafenib and/or gefitinib was assessed in conventional 2D cell culture and compared to the more advanced 3D model. Under 3D culture conditions, both cell lines showed a reduction of the proliferation rate only in the combination therapy approach. Furthermore, no significant differences between the various treatment approaches and the untreated control regarding apoptosis rate and viability for both cell lines could be found in the 3D tumour model which conferred an enhanced chemoresistance to the cancer cells. Because of the observed unresponsiveness to BRAF inhibition by vemurafenib as can be seen in the clinic for patients with BRAF mutations in CRC, the cell line HROC87 was used for further xenografting experiments and analysis of activation changes in the MAPK signalling pathway. It could be shown that the cells presented a reactivation of Akt in the 3D model when treated with both inhibitors, suggesting an escape mechanism for apoptosis which was not present in cells cultured under conventional 2D conditions. Moreover, the cells exhibited an activation of the hepatocyte growth factor receptor (HGFR, c-Met) in 2D and 3D culture, but this was not detectable in the xenograft model. This shows the limitations of in vivo models. The results suggest another feedback activation loop than that to the EGFR which might not primarily be involved in the resistance mechanism. This reflects the before mentioned high attrition rates in the preclinical drug testing.
With the technological advances of the last decade, it is now feasible to analyze microbiome samples, such as human stool specimens, using multi-omic techniques. Given the inherent sample complexity, there exists a need for sample methods which preserve as much information as possible about the biological system at the time of sampling. Here, we analyzed human stool samples preserved and stored using different methods, applying metagenomics as well as metaproteomics. Our results demonstrate that sample preservation and storage have a significant effect on the taxonomic composition of identified proteins. The overall identification rates, as well as the proportion of proteins from Actinobacteria were much higher when samples were flash frozen. Preservation in RNAlater overall led to fewer protein identifications and a considerable increase in the share of Bacteroidetes, as well as Proteobacteria. Additionally, a decrease in the share of metabolism-related proteins and an increase of the relative amount of proteins involved in the processing of genetic information was observed for RNAlater-stored samples. This suggests that great care should be taken in choosing methods for the preservation and storage of microbiome samples, as well as in comparing the results of analyses using different sampling and storage methods. Flash freezing and subsequent storage at −80 °C should be chosen wherever possible.
Trotz der rasanten Entwicklung molekulargenetischer Analysemethoden sind die Auslöser vieler Erbrankheiten bislang ungeklärt. Eine Identifikation der genetischen Ursache einer Erkrankung ist jedoch essenziell, um zusätzliche invasive Tests vermeiden, adäquate Therapiemaßnahmen in die Wege leiten, akkurate Prognosen stellen und eine entsprechende genetische Beratung anbieten zu können. Next Generation Sequencing (NGS)-basierte Techniken wie die Whole Exome Sequenzierung (WES) haben die humangenetische Forschung und Diagnostik in den letzten Jahren revolutioniert. Die WES ermöglicht die Sequenzierung der Exons aller proteincodierenden Gene von mehreren Individuen gleichzeitig und stellt ein hilfreiches Werkzeug bei der Suche nach neuen kranheitsrelevanten Genen im Menschen dar.
Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Aufklärung genetischer Ursachen verschiedenster Erkrankungen in konsanguinen Familien aus dem nahen und mittleren Osten mittels WES. Insgesamt wurden 43 Patienten mit unterschiedlichen Krankheitsbildern untersucht, darunter viele mit Skelettdysplasien oder Neuropathien. In 22 Fällen (51%) konnte die entsprechende krankheitsverursachende Mutation ausfindig gemacht werden. In 21% der aufgeklärten Fälle wurden Sequenzvarianten detektiert, die in der Literatur bereits als pathogen beschrieben wurden, während 63% bisher noch unbekannte Mutationen in bereits als krankheitsrelevant beschriebenen Genen darstellten. Zudem konnten im Rahmen dieser Arbeit drei neue, für den Menschen krankheitsrelevante Gene identifiziert werden, solute carrier family 10 member 7 (SLC10A7), T-box 4 (TBX4) und MIA SH3 domain ER export factor 3 (MIA3). SLC10A7 codiert für einen Transporter aus der Familie der solute carrier, der in der Plasmamembran verankert ist. In dieser Arbeit geleistete Analyseergebnisse konnten zu der Erstbeschreibung von homozygoten pathogenen SLC10A7-Mutationen als Ursache für eine Skelettdysplasie mit Amelogenesis imperfecta beitragen. Bei TBX4 handelt es sich um einen hochkonservierten Transkriptionsfaktor, der während der embryonalen Entwicklung an der Ausbildung der unteren Extremitäten beteiligt ist. Homozygote pathogene TBX4-Mutationen wurden im Kontext dieser Arbeit erstmalig mit einer posterioren Amelie mit Becken- und Lungenhypoplasie in Verbindung gebracht. MIA3 ist ein Transmembranprotein des endoplasmatischen Retikulums, das eine essenzielle Rolle bei der Proteinsekretion spielt. Die hier vorgestellten Patienten mit homozygoten pathogenen MIA3-Mutationen zeigen eine komplexe syndromale Erkrankung, die sich hauptsächlich in einer Kollagenopathie, Diabetes mellitus und milder mentaler Retardierung manifestiert und ein neues Krankheitsbild darstellt.
Die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit erzielten Ergebnisse erweitern somit zum einen das Mutationsspektrum verschiedener bekannter Krankheitsbilder und offenbaren zum anderen neue krankheitsrelevante Gene im Menschen.
Analyse der Genexpression verschiedener Kandidatengene und der Methylierung im Xiphophorus Melanom
(2020)
Das Melanom ist eine der aggressivsten Formen von malignen Tumoren beim Menschen. Bei Fischen der Gattung Xiphophorus kommt es zur spontanen Tumorformation, welche auch durch zwischenartliche Kreuzung herbeiführbar ist. Hybride mit angeborenem Melanom stellen ein nützliches Tiermodell zur Untersuchung der genetischen Grundlage der Tumorentwicklung dar. Ihre Tumorigenese hängt mit der pigmentzellspezifischen Überexpression der durch eine Mutation aktivierten Rezeptortyrosinkinase Xmrk zusammen. In reinrassigen Fischen wird die onkogene Funktion des xmrk durch den Genlocus R, welcher molekular noch nicht identifiziert wurde, unterdrückt. Zusammen mit der Überexpression von xmrk konnten mittels einer RNA-Seq Analyse weitere Gene gefunden werden, welche differenziell in den Proben von malignen und benignen Geweben des Xiphophorus exprimiert werden. Des Weiteren ist bekannt, dass die Methylierung des xmrk Promotors Einfluss auf die Expression des Genes hat.
Um die Daten der durch RNA-Seq gefundenen Kandidatengene zu validieren, wurde deren Expression in malignen und benignen Geweben der Flossen und des Rumpfes mittels qPCR quantifiziert. Zusätzlich dazu wurde die Expression einiger humaner Orthologe dieser Gene in Proben aus humanen Melanomzelllinien gemessen. Mir war es möglich zu zeigen, dass mit Ausnahme von cdkn2ab, mitfb und xirp2b alle Kandidatengene signifikant unterschiedlich in mindestens einem Vergleich von benignem und malignem Gewebe exprimiert waren. Das mit xmrk verglichen gegensätzliche Expressionsmuster von pdcd4a macht es zu einem vielversprechenden Kandidaten als vom R-Locus codierten Tumorsuppressorgen. In den humanen Melanomzelllinien konnte ausschließlich von PDGFRB keine erhöhte Expression in irgendeiner Probe nachgewiesen werden. Während die Expression von PDCD4, C-MYC und MITF in mindestens drei der vier Zelllinien mittelstark erhöht war, ließ sich bei KIT eine enorm gesteigerte Überexpression in Zellen der Linie Hermes3a nachweisen. Da drei der fünf analysierten Gene und ihre Orthologen ähnliche Expressionsmuster in Proben des Xiphophorus und der humanen Melanomzelllinien zeigen, deuten diese Ergebnisse auf die Nützlichkeit des Tiermodells zur Identifizierung entscheidender Gene und Signalwege im malignen Melanom hin. Ein zweites Ziel der Arbeit war das Erlangen tieferer Einblicke in die Methylierung des Xiphophorus Melanoms auf einer globalen und promotor- spezifischen Ebene. Um die Hypothese einer Reduzierung der globalen Methylierung zu testen, führte ich eine kolorimetrische Quantifizierung der 5-mC DNA in Kontroll- und Tumorgeweben aus. Diese Vorgehensweise zeigte zum ersten Mal eine signifikante Verminderung der methylierten globalen DNA in den benignen Läsionen und malignen Melanomen der Flossen verglichen mit dem Kontrollgewebe. Um herauszufinden, on diese Demethylierung direkt mit der Überexpression des xmrk verbunden ist, analysierte ich als nächstes die Methylierung eines CpG Dinukleotids des xmrk Promotors mithilfe von methylierungssensitiven Restriktionsendonukleasen. Obwohl nur in den Proben des exophytischen Tumorwachstums als Krebsgewebe eine verringerte Methylierung des CpG Dinukleotids verglichen mit den Kontrollen nachgewiesen werden konnte, zeigte sich die Stelle in Zellen der Xiphophorus Melanomzelllinie PSM komplett unmethyliert. Diese Ergebnisse deuten stark daraufhin, dass eine differenzierte Methylierung das onkogene Potential dieser Zellen bewirkt. Um die Effekte veränderter globaler und promotor-spezifischer Methylierung auf die Tumorigenese besser zu verstehen, sind weitere Untersuchungen nötig.