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A lot of countries have recently published updated hydrogen strategies, often including more ambitious targets for hydrogen production. In parallel, accompanying ramp-up mechanisms are increasingly coming into focus with the first ones already being released. However, these proposals usually translate mechanisms from renewable energy (RE) policy without considering the specific uncertainties, spillovers, and externalities of integrating hydrogen electrolysis into electricity grids. This article details how different aspects of a policy can address the specific issues, namely funding, risk-mitigation, and the complex relation with electricity markets. It shows that, compared to RE policy, subsidies need to emphasize the input side more strongly as price risks and intermittency from electricity markets are more prominent than from hydrogen markets. Also, it proposes a targeted mechanism to capture the positive externality of mitigating excess electricity in the grid while keeping investment security high. Economic policy should consider such approaches before massively scaling support and avoid the design shortcomings experienced with early RE policy.
The Macroeconomic Dimensions of Credit: A Comprehensive Analysis of Finance, Inequality and Growth
(2024)
Schumpeter's monetary growth theory is particularly influential for the modern understanding of the macroeconomic role of banks and credit. Based on this theory, this dissertation examines the macroeconomic role of the financial system, especially credit, in (1) generating economic growth, (2) directing economic resources and (3) distributing wealth.
Chapter 3 first shows empirically that 1) there is a positive correlation between the growth of credit and economic growth, even for developed countries, 2) no empirical correlation between household saving and economic growth can be established, and 3) there are both positive, negative and insignificant effects of credit on economic growth at country-specific level. Thus, there is broad empirical support for Schumpeter's monetary hypotheses.
A particularly interesting application of Schumpeter's growth theory can be seen in China. The results of the empirical study suggest that there is generally a positive correlation between credit and economic growth in China, that is, however, not linear in terms of regions, time and size of the financial system. Furthermore, the results in Chapter 4 suggest that credit-financed industrial policy in China may have contributed to more investment and GDP growth, although there are non-linearities between individual industries and types of companies.
Finally, Chapter 5 raises the question of the role of the financial system in the distribution of wealth. While credit to households and companies, together with indicators of working and saving behavior and the age structure of the population, are the most important determinants of wealth inequality, there are also various non-linearities in the relationship between credit and wealth inequality, including in relation to the level of development of financial systems and home ownership ratios.
Expanding on a general equilibrium model of offshoring, we analyze the effects of a unilateral emissions tax increase on the environment, income, and inequality. Heterogeneous firms allocate labor across production tasks and emissions abatement, while only the most productive can benefit from lower labor and/or emissions costs abroad and offshore. We find a non-monotonic effect on global emissions, which decline if the initial difference in emissions taxes is small. For a sufficiently large difference, global emissions rise, implying emissions leakage of more than 100%. The underlying driver is a global technique effect: While the emissions intensity of incumbent non-offshoring firms declines, the cleanest firms start offshoring. Moreover, offshoring firms become dirtier, induced by a reduction in the foreign effective emissions tax in general equilibrium. Implementing a BCA prevents emissions leakage, reduces income inequality in the reforming country, but raises inequality across countries.
We study nominal exchange rate dynamics in the aftermath of U.S. monetary policy announcements. Using high-frequency interest rate and stock price movements around FOMC announcements, we distinguish between pure monetary policy shocks and information shocks, which are associated with new information contained in the announcements. Contractionary pure policy shocks give rise to a strong, but transitory, appreciation on impact. Information shocks also appreciate the exchange rate, but the effect builds up only slowly over time and is highly persistent. Thus, we conclude that although the short-run effects on the exchange rate are primarily due to pure policy shocks, the medium-run response is driven by information effects.
This paper examines the potential reinforcement of motivated beliefs when individuals with identical biases communicate. We propose a controlled online experiment that allows to manipulate belief biases and the communication environment. We find that communication, even among like-minded individuals, diminishes motivated beliefs if it takes place in an environment without previously declared external opinions. In the presence of external plural opinions, however, communication does not reduce but rather aggravates motivated beliefs. Our results indicate a potential drawback of the plurality of opinions - it may create communication environments wherein motivated beliefs not only persist but also become contagious within social networks.
Diese Arbeit präsentiert ein stochastisches Überlappungsmodell von
Generationen mit endogenen Gesundheitsinvestitionen und endogenem
Mortalitätsrisiko. Dieses Modell ermöglicht es, makroökonomische und
Auswirkungen von Gesundheitsreformen in Deutschland zu quantifizieren.
Zusätzlich werden Wohlfahrtsaspekte solcher Reformen beleuchtet. Zu Beginn
der Arbeit wird ein Ausgangsgleichgewicht dargestellt, welches die Situation in
Deutschland im Jahr 2020 abbildet. Hierbei sind Individuen entweder gesetzlich
oder privat krankenversichert. Die Versicherungen unterscheiden sich hinsichtlich
der Finanzierung sowie der Behandlungskosten und -qualität. Die Arbeit
untersucht den Übergang zu einem einheitlichen System, welches entweder
umlagefinanziert ist oder mit dem Kapitaldeckungsverfahren arbeitet. Die
Simulationsergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass die gesetzliche
Krankenversicherung und somit einkommensabhängige Beiträge mit besseren
Versicherungseigenschaften verbunden sind, die die Verzerrungen bei der
Arbeitsangebotsmenge kompensieren können, jedoch auf Kosten eines höheren
moralischen Risikos gehen. Prämienmodelle hingegen führen zu einem höheren
Arbeitsangebot und besserem Vorsorge-Verhalten in Form von Ersparnissen oder
Gesundheitsinvestitionen. Ich stellen auch fest, dass obligatorische Selbstbehalte
das aggregierte Wohlergehen in Deutschland verringern würden, obwohl sie das
moralische Risiko reduzieren und private Gesundheitsinvestitionen erhöhen.
Schließlich ist der Übergang zu einer reinen privat Versicherung für
Übergangskohorten kostspielig, was auf eine Präferenz für kostengünstigere
umlagefinanzierte Prämien aufgrund von Effizienzüberlegungen hinweist.
Der demografische Wandel im Zusammenhang mit einer alternden Bevölkerung sorgt dafür, dass Regierungen weltweit zur Reformierung ihrer Rentensysteme gezwungen werden. Ein beliebtes Mittel hierbei ist die Anhebung der Regelaltersgrenze. Diese Maßnahme ist jedoch in der Bevölkerung unbeliebt, weshalb hier nach alternativen Wegen gesucht wird, um frühzeitig in den Ruhestand einzutreten. Eine Möglichkeit, solchen angepassten Altersrentenregelungen zu entgehen, ist der Bezug einer Erwerbsminderungsrente. Deutschland schuf hier neue Anreize, in die Erwerbsminderung einzutreten, indem es die erwarteten Rentenzahlbeträge anhob. Dies ist der Ausgangspunkt der vorliegenden Arbeit, in der das Renteneintrittsverhalten und die daraus resultierenden makroökonomischen Effekte von Rentenreformen unter Verwendung eines allgemeinen Gleichgewichtsmodells untersucht werden. In diesem können Haushalte sowohl über den Zeitpunkt als auch die Art ihres Renteneintritts entscheiden, wobei sie zwischen einer Erwerbsminderungs- und einer Altersrente wählen können. Bei der Bewertung der tatsächlich realisierten Rentenreformen von 2007 und 2018 wird ersichtlich, dass die Anhebung der Regelaltersgrenze zu positiven Effekten sowohl mit Blick auf die Tragfähigkeit des Rentensystems als auch die gesamtwirtschaftliche Wohlfahrt geführt hätte. Die Realisierung dieser Gewinne wird jedoch durch die 2018 realisierte Anhebung der Zurechnungszeiten beinahe komplett zunichte gemacht. Allein die fiskalischen Auswirkungen, bei denen von Verhaltensreaktionen von Seiten der Haushalte abgesehen wird, würden fiskalische Kosten erzeugen, die ungefähr ein Drittel der zuvor generierten positiven Effekte eliminieren. Können die Haushalte komplett frei über ihre Ruhestandsentscheidung verfügen, verschwinden die zuvor generierten Wohlfahrtsgewinne sogar beinahe vollständig, und das Rentensystem sowie die makroökonomischen Größen befinden sich auf einem Niveau, das vergleichbar mit dem des Ausgangsgleichgewichts ist. Alternative Rentenreformen, basierend auf der Gesetzeslage von 2018, verdeutlichen, dass effektive Rentenpolitik nur dann funktionieren kann, wenn Alters- und Erwerbsminderungsrente als Gesamtpaket betrachtet werden. Hierdurch werden Erkenntnisse für die Gestaltung zukünftiger Rentenreformen gewonnen und die Bedeutung eines ganzheitlichen Ansatzes betont, der die verschiedenen Aspekte des Rentensystems berücksichtigt.
International trade is highly imbalanced both in terms of values and in terms of embodied carbon emissions. We show that the persistent current value trade imbalance patterns contribute to a higher level of global emissions compared to a world of balanced international trade. Specifically, we build a Ricardian quantitative trade model including sectoral input-output linkages, trade imbalances, fossil fuel extraction, and carbon emissions from fossil fuel combustion and use this framework to simulate counterfactual changes to countries' trade balances. For individual countries, the emission effects of removing their trade imbalances depend on the carbon intensities of their production and consumption patterns, as well as on their fossil resource abundance. Eliminating the Russian trade surplus and the US trade deficit would lead to the largest environmental benefits in terms of lower global emissions. Globally, the simultaneous removal of all trade imbalances would lower world carbon emissions by 0.9 percent or 295 million tons of carbon dioxide.
This study describes the Chinese growth model over the past 40 years. We show that China's growth model, with its dominant role of the banking system and "the banker", is a perfect illustration of the necessity and power of Schumpeter's "monetary analysis". This approach has allowed us to elaborate theoretically and empirically the uniqueness of the Chinese model. In our empirical analysis, we use a new dataset of Chinese provincial data to analyze the impact of the financial system, especially banks, on Chinese economic development. We also empirically assess the role of the financial system in Chinese industrial policy and provide case studies of the effects of industrial policy in specific sectors. Finally, we also discuss macroeconomic dimensions of the Chinese growth process and lessons that can be drawn from the Chinese experience for other countries.
The necessary adjustments to prominent measures of the neutral rate of interest following the COVID pandemic sparked a wide-ranging debate on the measurement and usefulness of r-star. Due to high uncertainty about relevant determinants, trend patterns and the correct estimation method, we propose in this paper a simple alternative approach derived from a standard macro model. Starting from a loss function, neutral periods can be determined in which a neutral real interest rate is observable. Using these values, a medium-term trend for a neutral interest rate can be determined. An application to the USA shows that our simple calculation of a neutral interest rate delivers comparable results to existing studies. A Taylor rule based on our neutral interest rate also does a fairly good job of explaining US monetary policy over the past 60 years.