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Institute
- Institut für Humangenetik (127)
- Theodor-Boveri-Institut für Biowissenschaften (20)
- Kinderklinik und Poliklinik (6)
- Deutsches Zentrum für Herzinsuffizienz (DZHI) (5)
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- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik I (5)
- Neurologische Klinik und Poliklinik (4)
- Lehrstuhl für Orthopädie (3)
- Institut für Anatomie und Zellbiologie (2)
- Klinik und Poliklinik für Hals-, Nasen- und Ohrenkrankheiten, plastische und ästhetische Operationen (2)
Sonstige beteiligte Institutionen
- Comprehensive Hearing Center, Department of ORL, Plastic, Aesthetic and Reconstructive Head and Neck Surgery, Würzburg, Germany (1)
- DNA Analytics Core Facility, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (1)
- Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (1)
Introduction
Dickkopf-1 (DKK1) is a soluble protein and antagonist of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. DKK1 is found elevated in serum from patients affected with various types of cancers and in some instances, it is considered a diagnostic and prognostic biomarker. Elevated serum levels of DKK1 have also been detected in animal models of chronic inflammatory diseases. Previous work from our laboratory has demonstrated upregulation of DKK1 in cells and mouse models of the bone marrow failure (BMF) and cancer-prone disease Fanconi anemia (FA). The present study aimed to investigate whether DKK1 blood levels in patients are associated with FA or inflammatory responses to acute infections.
Methods
Plasma samples were collected from 58 children admitted to the Centre Mère-Enfant Soleil du Centre Hospitalier de Québec-Université Laval with signs of acute infections. Blood plasma specimens were also collected from healthy blood donors at the Héma-Québec blood donor clinic. Plasmas from patients diagnosed with FA were also included in the study. DKK1 levels in blood plasmas were assessed by standard ELISA.
Results
Patients with acute infections showed dramatically high levels of DKK1 (6072 ± 518 pg/ml) in their blood compared to healthy blood donors (1726 ± 95 pg/ml). No correlations were found between DKK1 levels and C reactive protein (CRP) concentration, platelet numbers, or white blood cell counts. Patients with FA showed higher DKK1 plasma levels (3419 ± 147.5 pg/ml) than healthy blood donors (1726 ± 95 pg/ml) but significantly lower than patients with acute infections.
Conclusion
These findings suggest that blood DKK1 is elevated in response to infections and perhaps to inflammatory responses.
Flunkert, Julia ; Maierhofer, Anna ; Dittrich, Marcus ; Müller, Tobias ; Horvath, Steve ; Nanda, Indrajit ; Haaf, Thomas
To study delayed genetic and epigenetic radiation effects, which may trigger radiation-induced carcinogenesis, we have established single-cell clones from irradiated and non-irradiated primary human fibroblasts. Stable clones were endowed with the same karyotype in all analyzed metaphases after 20 population doublings (PDs), whereas unstable clones displayed mosaics of normal and abnormal karyotypes. To account for variation in radiation sensitivity, all experiments were performed with two different fibroblast strains. After a single X-ray dose of 2 Gy more than half of the irradiated clones exhibited radiation-induced genome instability (RIGI). Irradiated clones displayed an increased rate of loss of chromosome Y (LOY) and copy number variations (CNVs), compared to controls. CNV breakpoints clustered in specific chromosome regions, in particular 3p14.2 and 7q11.21, coinciding with common fragile sites. CNVs affecting the FHIT gene in FRA3B were observed in independent unstable clones and may drive RIGI. Bisulfite pyrosequencing of control clones and the respective primary culture revealed global hypomethylation of ALU, LINE-1, and alpha-satellite repeats as well as rDNA hypermethylation during in vitro ageing. Irradiated clones showed further reduced ALU and alpha-satellite methylation and increased rDNA methylation, compared to controls. Methylation arrays identified several hundred differentially methylated genes and several enriched pathways associated with in vitro ageing. Methylation changes in 259 genes and the MAP kinase signaling pathway were associated with delayed radiation effects (after 20 PDs). Collectively, our results suggest that both genetic (LOY and CNVs) and epigenetic changes occur in the progeny of exposed cells that were not damaged directly by irradiation, likely contributing to radiation-induced carcinogenesis. We did not observe epigenetic differences between stable and unstable irradiated clones. The fact that the DNA methylation (DNAm) age of clones derived from the same primary culture varied greatly suggests that DNAm age of a single cell (represented by a clone) can be quite different from the DNAm age of a tissue. We propose that DNAm age reflects the emergent property of a large number of individual cells whose respective DNAm ages can be highly variable.
Hauke, Jan ; Horvath, Judit ; Groß, Eva ; Gehrig, Andrea ; Honisch, Ellen ; Hackmann, Karl ; Schmidt, Gunnar ; Arnold, Norbert ; Faust, Ulrike ; Sutter, Christian ; Hentschel, Julia ; Wang-Gohrke, Shan ; Smogavec, Mateja ; Weber, Bernhard H. F. ; Weber-Lassalle, Nana ; Weber-Lassalle, Konstantin ; Borde, Julika ; Ernst, Corinna ; Altmüller, Janine ; Volk, Alexander E. ; Thiele, Holger ; Hübbel, Verena ; Nürnberg, Peter ; Keupp, Katharina ; Versmold, Beatrix ; Pohl, Esther ; Kubisch, Christian ; Grill, Sabine ; Paul, Victoria ; Herold, Natalie ; Lichey, Nadine ; Rhiem, Kerstin ; Ditsch, Nina ; Ruckert, Christian ; Wappenschmidt, Barbara ; Auber, Bernd ; Rump, Andreas ; Niederacher, Dieter ; Haaf, Thomas ; Ramser, Juliane ; Dworniczak, Bernd ; Engel, Christoph ; Meindl, Alfons ; Schmutzler, Rita K. ; Hahnen, Eric
The prevalence of germ line mutations in non-BRCA1/2 genes associated with hereditary breast cancer (BC) is low, and the role of some of these genes in BC predisposition and pathogenesis is conflicting. In this study, 5589 consecutive BC index patients negative for pathogenic BRCA1/2 mutations and 2189 female controls were screened for germ line mutations in eight cancer predisposition genes (ATM, CDH1, CHEK2, NBN, PALB2, RAD51C, RAD51D, and TP53). All patients met the inclusion criteria of the German Consortium for Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer for germ line testing. The highest mutation prevalence was observed in the CHEK2 gene (2.5%), followed by ATM (1.5%) and PALB2 (1.2%). The mutation prevalence in each of the remaining genes was 0.3% or lower. Using Exome Aggregation Consortium control data, we confirm significant associations of heterozygous germ line mutations with BC for ATM (OR: 3.63, 95%CI: 2.67–4.94), CDH1 (OR: 17.04, 95%CI: 3.54–82), CHEK2 (OR: 2.93, 95%CI: 2.29–3.75), PALB2 (OR: 9.53, 95%CI: 6.25–14.51), and TP53 (OR: 7.30, 95%CI: 1.22–43.68). NBN germ line mutations were not significantly associated with BC risk (OR:1.39, 95%CI: 0.73–2.64). Due to their low mutation prevalence, the RAD51C and RAD51D genes require further investigation. Compared with control datasets, predicted damaging rare missense variants were significantly more prevalent in CHEK2 and TP53 in BC index patients. Compared with the overall sample, only TP53 mutation carriers show a significantly younger age at first BC diagnosis. We demonstrate a significant association of deleterious variants in the CHEK2, PALB2, and TP53 genes with bilateral BC. Both, ATM and CHEK2, were negatively associated with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) and estrogen receptor (ER)-negative tumor phenotypes. A particularly high CHEK2 mutation prevalence (5.2%) was observed in patients with human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-positive tumors.
Clinical relevance of systematic phenotyping and exome sequencing in patients with short stature
(2018)
Hauer, Nadine N. ; Popp, Bernt ; Schoeller, Eva ; Schuhmann, Sarah ; Heath, Karen E. ; Hisado-Oliva, Alfonso ; Klinger, Patricia ; Kraus, Cornelia ; Trautmann, Udo ; Zenker, Martin ; Zweier, Christiane ; Wiesener, Antje ; Jamra, Rami Abou ; Kunstmann, Erdmute ; Wieczorek, Dagmar ; Uebe, Steffen ; Ferrazzi, Fulvia ; Büttner, Christian ; Ekici, Arif B. ; Rauch, Anita ; Sticht, Heinrich ; Dörr, Helmuth-Günther ; Reis, André ; Thiel, Christian T.
Purpose
Short stature is a common condition of great concern to patients and their families. Mostly genetic in origin, the underlying cause often remains elusive due to clinical and genetic heterogeneity.
Methods
We systematically phenotyped 565 patients where common nongenetic causes of short stature were excluded, selected 200 representative patients for whole-exome sequencing, and analyzed the identified variants for pathogenicity and the affected genes regarding their functional relevance for growth.
Results
By standard targeted diagnostic and phenotype assessment, we identified a known disease cause in only 13.6% of the 565 patients. Whole-exome sequencing in 200 patients identified additional mutations in known short-stature genes in 16.5% of these patients who manifested only part of the symptomatology. In 15.5% of the 200 patients our findings were of significant clinical relevance. Heterozygous carriers of recessive skeletal dysplasia alleles represented 3.5% of the cases.
Conclusion
A combined approach of systematic phenotyping, targeted genetic testing, and whole-exome sequencing allows the identification of the underlying cause of short stature in at least 33% of cases, enabling physicians to improve diagnosis, treatment, and genetic counseling. Exome sequencing significantly increases the diagnostic yield and consequently care in patients with short stature.
Hernández, Gonzalo ; José Ramírez, María ; Minguillón, Jordi ; Quiles, Paco ; Ruiz de Garibay, Gorka ; Aza-Carmona, Miriam ; Bogliolo, Massimo ; Pujol, Roser ; Prados-Carvajal, Rosario ; Fernández, Juana ; García, Nadia ; López, Adrià ; Gutiérrez-Enríquez, Sara ; Diez, Orland ; Benítez, Javier ; Salinas, Mónica ; Teulé, Alex ; Brunet, Joan ; Radice, Paolo ; Peterlongo, Paolo ; Schindler, Detlev ; Huertas, Pablo ; Puente, Xose S. ; Lázaro, Conxi ; Àngel Pujana, Miquel ; Surrallés, Jordi
BRCA1 is a tumor suppressor that regulates DNA repair by homologous recombination. Germline mutations in BRCA1 are associated with increased risk of breast and ovarian cancer and BRCA1 deficient tumors are exquisitely sensitive to poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors. Therefore, uncovering additional components of this DNA repair pathway is of extreme importance for further understanding cancer development and therapeutic vulnerabilities. Here, we identify EDC4, a known component of processing-bodies and regulator of mRNA decapping, as a member of the BRCA1-BRIP1-TOPBP1 complex. EDC4 plays a key role in homologous recombination by stimulating end resection at double-strand breaks. EDC4 deficiency leads to genome instability and hypersensitivity to DNA interstrand cross-linking drugs and PARP inhibitors. Lack-of-function mutations in EDC4 were detected in BRCA1/2-mutation-negative breast cancer cases, suggesting a role in breast cancer susceptibility. Collectively, this study recognizes EDC4 with a dual role in decapping and DNA repair whose inactivation phenocopies BRCA1 deficiency.
Ghosh, Sujal ; Hönscheid, Andrea ; Dückers, Gregor ; Ginzel, Sebastian ; Gohlke, Holger ; Gombert, Michael ; Kempkes, Bettina ; Klapper, Wolfram ; Kuhlen, Michaela ; Laws, Hans-Jürgen ; Linka, René Martin ; Meisel, Roland ; Mielke, Christian ; Niehues, Tim ; Schindler, Detlev ; Schneider, Dominik ; Schuster, Friedhelm R. ; Speckmann, Carsten ; Borkhardt, Arndt
Evolutionary conserved networks of human height identify multiple Mendelian causes of short stature
(2019)
Hauer, Nadine N. ; Popp, Bernt ; Taher, Leila ; Vogl, Carina ; Dhandapany, Perundurai S. ; Büttner, Christian ; Uebe, Steffen ; Sticht, Heinrich ; Ferrazzi, Fulvia ; Ekici, Arif B. ; De Luca, Alessandro ; Klinger, Patrizia ; Kraus, Cornelia ; Zweier, Christiane ; Wiesener, Antje ; Abou Jamra, Rami ; Kunstmann, Erdmute ; Rauch, Anita ; Wieczorek, Dagmar ; Jung, Anna-Marie ; Rohrer, Tilman R. ; Zenker, Martin ; Doerr, Helmuth-Guenther ; Reis, André ; Thiel, Christian T.
Height is a heritable and highly heterogeneous trait. Short stature affects 3% of the population and in most cases is genetic in origin. After excluding known causes, 67% of affected individuals remain without diagnosis. To identify novel candidate genes for short stature, we performed exome sequencing in 254 unrelated families with short stature of unknown cause and identified variants in 63 candidate genes in 92 (36%) independent families. Based on systematic characterization of variants and functional analysis including expression in chondrocytes, we classified 13 genes as strong candidates. Whereas variants in at least two families were detected for all 13 candidates, two genes had variants in 6 (UBR4) and 8 (LAMA5) families, respectively. To facilitate their characterization, we established a clustered network of 1025 known growth and short stature genes, which yielded 29 significantly enriched clusters, including skeletal system development, appendage development, metabolic processes, and ciliopathy. Eleven of the candidate genes mapped to 21 of these clusters, including CPZ, EDEM3, FBRS, IFT81, KCND1, PLXNA3, RASA3, SLC7A8, UBR4, USP45, and ZFHX3. Fifty additional growth-related candidates we identified await confirmation in other affected families. Our study identifies Mendelian forms of growth retardation as an important component of idiopathic short stature.
Ferreira, Manuel A. ; Gamazon, Eric R. ; Al-Ejeh, Fares ; Aittomäki, Kristiina ; Andrulis, Irene L. ; Anton-Culver, Hoda ; Arason, Adalgeir ; Arndt, Volker ; Aronson, Kristan J. ; Arun, Banu K. ; Asseryanis, Ella ; Azzollini, Jacopo ; Balmaña, Judith ; Barnes, Daniel R. ; Barrowdale, Daniel ; Beckmann, Matthias W. ; Behrens, Sabine ; Benitez, Javier ; Bermisheva, Marina ; Bialkowska, Katarzyna ; Blomqvist, Carl ; Bogdanova, Natalia V. ; Bojesen, Stig E. ; Bolla, Manjeet K. ; Borg, Ake ; Brauch, Hiltrud ; Brenner, Hermann ; Broeks, Annegien ; Burwinkel, Barbara ; Caldés, Trinidad ; Caligo, Maria A. ; Campa, Daniele ; Campbell, Ian ; Canzian, Federico ; Carter, Jonathan ; Carter, Brian D. ; Castelao, Jose E. ; Chang-Claude, Jenny ; Chanock, Stephen J. ; Christiansen, Hans ; Chung, Wendy K. ; Claes, Kathleen B. M. ; Clarke, Christine L. ; Couch, Fergus J. ; Cox, Angela ; Cross, Simon S. ; Czene, Kamila ; Daly, Mary B. ; de la Hoya, Miguel ; Dennis, Joe ; Devilee, Peter ; Diez, Orland ; Dörk, Thilo ; Dunning, Alison M. ; Dwek, Miriam ; Eccles, Diana M. ; Ejlertsen, Bent ; Ellberg, Carolina ; Engel, Christoph ; Eriksson, Mikael ; Fasching, Peter A. ; Fletcher, Olivia ; Flyger, Henrik ; Friedman, Eitan ; Frost, Debra ; Gabrielson, Marike ; Gago-Dominguez, Manuela ; Ganz, Patricia A. ; Gapstur, Susan M. ; Garber, Judy ; García-Closas, Montserrat ; García-Sáenz, José A. ; Gaudet, Mia M. ; Giles, Graham G. ; Glendon, Gord ; Godwin, Andrew K. ; Goldberg, Mark S. ; Goldgar, David E. ; González-Neira, Anna ; Greene, Mark H. ; Gronwald, Jacek ; Guenél, Pascal ; Haimann, Christopher A. ; Hall, Per ; Hamann, Ute ; He, Wei ; Heyworth, Jane ; Hogervorst, Frans B. L. ; Hollestelle, Antoinette ; Hoover, Robert N. ; Hopper, John L. ; Hulick, Peter J. ; Humphreys, Keith ; Imyanitov, Evgeny N. ; Isaacs, Claudine ; Jakimovska, Milena ; Jakubowska, Anna ; James, Paul A. ; Janavicius, Ramunas ; Jankowitz, Rachel C. ; John, Esther M. ; Johnson, Nichola ; Joseph, Vijai ; Karlan, Beth Y. ; Khusnutdinova, Elza ; Kiiski, Johanna I. ; Ko, Yon-Dschun ; Jones, Michael E. ; Konstantopoulou, Irene ; Kristensen, Vessela N. ; Laitman, Yael ; Lambrechts, Diether ; Lazaro, Conxi ; Leslie, Goska ; Lester, Jenny ; Lesueur, Fabienne ; Lindström, Sara ; Long, Jirong ; Loud, Jennifer T. ; Lubiński, Jan ; Makalic, Enes ; Mannermaa, Arto ; Manoochehri, Mehdi ; Margolin, Sara ; Maurer, Tabea ; Mavroudis, Dimitrios ; McGuffog, Lesley ; Meindl, Alfons ; Menon, Usha ; Michailidou, Kyriaki ; Miller, Austin ; Montagna, Marco ; Moreno, Fernando ; Moserle, Lidia ; Mulligan, Anna Marie ; Nathanson, Katherine L. ; Neuhausen, Susan L. ; Nevanlinna, Heli ; Nevelsteen, Ines ; Nielsen, Finn C. ; Nikitina-Zake, Liene ; Nussbaum, Robert L. ; Offit, Kenneth ; Olah, Edith ; Olopade, Olufunmilayo I. ; Olsson, Håkan ; Osorio, Ana ; Papp, Janos ; Park-Simon, Tjoung-Won ; Parsons, Michael T. ; Pedersen, Inge Sokilde ; Peixoto, Ana ; Peterlongo, Paolo ; Pharaoh, Paul D. P. ; Plaseska-Karanfilska, Dijana ; Poppe, Bruce ; Presneau, Nadege ; Radice, Paolo ; Rantala, Johanna ; Rennert, Gad ; Risch, Harvey A. ; Saloustros, Emmanouil ; Sanden, Kristin ; Sawyer, Elinor J. ; Schmidt, Marjanka K. ; Schmutzler, Rita K. ; Sharma, Priyanka ; Shu, Xiao-Ou ; Simard, Jaques ; Singer, Christian F. ; Soucy, Penny ; Southey, Melissa C. ; Spinelli, John J. ; Spurdle, Amanda B. ; Stone, Jennifer ; Swerdlow, Anthony J. ; Tapper, William J. ; Taylor, Jack A. ; Teixeira, Manuel R. ; Terry, Mary Beth ; Teulé, Alex ; Thomassen, Mads ; Thöne, Kathrin ; Thull, Darcy L. ; Tischkowitz, Marc ; Toland, Amanda E. ; Torres, Diana ; Truong, Thérèse ; Tung, Nadine ; Vachon, Celine M. ; van Asperen, Christi J. ; van den Ouweland, Ans M. W. ; van Rensburg, Elizabeth J. ; Vega, Ana ; Viel, Alexandra ; Wang, Qin ; Wappenschmidt, Barbara ; Weitzel, Jeffrey N. ; Wendt, Camilla ; Winqvist, Robert ; Yang, Xiaohong R. ; Yannoukakos, Drakoulis ; Ziogas, Argyrios ; Kraft, Peter ; Antoniou, Antonis C. ; Zheng, Wei ; Easton, Douglas F. ; Milne, Roger L. ; Beesley, Jonathan ; Chenevix-Trench, Georgia
Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified more than 170 breast cancer susceptibility loci. Here we hypothesize that some risk-associated variants might act in non-breast tissues, specifically adipose tissue and immune cells from blood and spleen. Using expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) reported in these tissues, we identify 26 previously unreported, likely target genes of overall breast cancer risk variants, and 17 for estrogen receptor (ER)-negative breast cancer, several with a known immune function. We determine the directional effect of gene expression on disease risk measured based on single and multiple eQTL. In addition, using a gene-based test of association that considers eQTL from multiple tissues, we identify seven (and four) regions with variants associated with overall (and ER-negative) breast cancer risk, which were not reported in previous GWAS. Further investigation of the function of the implicated genes in breast and immune cells may provide insights into the etiology of breast cancer.
Dubail, Johanne ; Huber, Céline ; Chantepie, Sandrine ; Sonntag, Stephan ; Tüysüz, Beyhan ; Mihci, Ercan ; Gordon, Christopher T. ; Steichen-Gersdorf, Elisabeth ; Amiel, Jeanne ; Nur, Banu ; Stolte-Dijkstra, Irene ; van Eerde, Albertien M. ; van Gassen, Koen L. ; Breugem, Corstiaan C. ; Stegmann, Alexander ; Lekszas, Caroline ; Maroofian, Reza ; Karimiani, Ehsan Ghayoor ; Bruneel, Arnaud ; Seta, Nathalie ; Munnich, Arnold ; Papy-Garcia, Dulce ; De La Dure-Molla, Muriel ; Cormier-Daire, Valérie
Skeletal dysplasia with multiple dislocations are severe disorders characterized by dislocations of large joints and short stature. The majority of them have been linked to pathogenic variants in genes encoding glycosyltransferases, sulfotransferases or epimerases required for glycosaminoglycan synthesis. Using exome sequencing, we identify homozygous mutations in SLC10A7 in six individuals with skeletal dysplasia with multiple dislocations and amelogenesis imperfecta. SLC10A7 encodes a 10-transmembrane-domain transporter located at the plasma membrane. Functional studies in vitro demonstrate that SLC10A7 mutations reduce SLC10A7 protein expression. We generate a Slc10a7−/− mouse model, which displays shortened long bones, growth plate disorganization and tooth enamel anomalies, recapitulating the human phenotype. Furthermore, we identify decreased heparan sulfate levels in Slc10a7−/− mouse cartilage and patient fibroblasts. Finally, we find an abnormal N-glycoprotein electrophoretic profile in patient blood samples. Together, our findings support the involvement of SLC10A7 in glycosaminoglycan synthesis and specifically in skeletal development.
Luther, Christian H. ; Brandt, Philipp ; Vylkova, Slavena ; Dandekar, Thomas ; Müller, Tobias ; Dittrich, Marcus
Fungal infections are a major global health burden where Candida albicans is among the most common fungal pathogen in humans and is a common cause of invasive candidiasis. Fungal phenotypes, such as those related to morphology, proliferation and virulence are mainly driven by gene expression, which is primarily regulated by kinase signaling cascades. Serine-arginine (SR) protein kinases are highly conserved among eukaryotes and are involved in major transcriptional processes in human and S. cerevisiae. Candida albicans harbors two SR protein kinases, while Sky2 is important for metabolic adaptation, Sky1 has similar functions as in S. cerevisiae. To investigate the role of these SR kinases for the regulation of transcriptional responses in C. albicans, we performed RNA sequencing of sky1Δ and sky2Δ and integrated a comprehensive phosphoproteome dataset of these mutants. Using a Systems Biology approach, we study transcriptional regulation in the context of kinase signaling networks. Transcriptomic enrichment analysis indicates that pathways involved in the regulation of gene expression are downregulated and mitochondrial processes are upregulated in sky1Δ. In sky2Δ, primarily metabolic processes are affected, especially for arginine, and we observed that arginine-induced hyphae formation is impaired in sky2Δ. In addition, our analysis identifies several transcription factors as potential drivers of the transcriptional response. Among these, a core set is shared between both kinase knockouts, but it appears to regulate different subsets of target genes. To elucidate these diverse regulatory patterns, we created network modules by integrating the data of site-specific protein phosphorylation and gene expression with kinase-substrate predictions and protein-protein interactions. These integrated signaling modules reveal shared parts but also highlight specific patterns characteristic for each kinase. Interestingly, the modules contain many proteins involved in fungal morphogenesis and stress response. Accordingly, experimental phenotyping shows a higher resistance to Hygromycin B for sky1Δ. Thus, our study demonstrates that a combination of computational approaches with integration of experimental data can offer a new systems biological perspective on the complex network of signaling and transcription. With that, the investigation of the interface between signaling and transcriptional regulation in C. albicans provides a deeper insight into how cellular mechanisms can shape the phenotype.