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Accounting plays an essential role in solving the principal-agent problem between managers and shareholders of capital market-oriented companies through the provision of information by the manager. However, this can succeed only if the accounting information is of high quality. In this context, the perceptions of shareholders regarding earnings quality are of particular importance.
The present dissertation intends to contribute to a deeper understanding regarding earnings quality from the perspective of shareholders of capital market-oriented companies. In particular, the thesis deals with indicators of shareholders’ perceptions of earnings quality, the influence of the auditor’s independence on these perceptions, and the shareholders’ assessment of the importance of earnings quality in general. Therefore, this dissertation examines market reactions to earnings announcements, measures of earnings quality and the auditor’s independence, as well as shareholders’ voting behavior at annual general meetings.
Following the introduction and a theoretical part consisting of two chapters, which deal with the purposes of accounting and auditing as well as the relevance of shareholder voting at the annual general meeting in the context of the principal-agent theory, the dissertation presents three empirical studies.
The empirical study presented in chapter 4 investigates auditor ratification votes in a U.S. setting. The study addresses the question of whether the results of auditor ratification votes are informative regarding shareholders’ perceptions of earnings quality. Using a returns-earnings design, the study demonstrates that the results of auditor ratification votes are associated with market reactions to unexpected earnings at the earnings announcement date. Furthermore, there are indications that this association seems to be positively related to higher levels of information asymmetry between managers and shareholders. Thus, there is empirical support for the notion that the results of auditor ratification votes are earnings-related information that might help shareholders to make informed investment decisions.
Chapter 5 investigates the relation between the economic importance of the client and perceived earnings quality. In particular, it is examined whether and when shareholders have a negative perception of an auditor’s economic dependence on the client. The results from a Big 4 client sample in the U.S. (fiscal years 2010 through 2014) indicate a negative association between the economic importance of the client and shareholders’ perceptions of earnings quality. The results are interpreted to mean that shareholders are still concerned about auditor independence even ten years after the implementation of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. Furthermore, the association between the economic importance of the client and shareholders’ perceptions of earnings quality applies predominantly to the subsample of clients that are more likely to be financially distressed. Therefore, the empirical results reveal that shareholders’ perceptions of auditor independence are conditional on the client’s circumstances.
The study presented in chapter 6 sheds light on the question of whether earnings quality influences shareholders’ satisfaction with the members of the company’s board. Using data from 1,237 annual general meetings of German listed companies from 2010 through 2015, the study provides evidence that earnings quality – measured by the absolute value of discretionary accruals – is related to shareholders’ satisfaction with the company’s board. Moreover, the findings imply that shareholders predominantly blame the management board for inferior earnings quality. Overall, the evidence that earnings quality positively influences shareholders’ satisfaction emphasizes the relevance of earnings quality.
Die Unabhängigkeit des Abschlussprüfers ist von anhaltender Relevanz, wird jedoch immer wieder in Frage gestellt. Der Fokus von Regulierungsbehörden und Forschung liegt auf kapitalmarktorientierten Unternehmen. Die Unabhängigkeit kann besonders gefährdet sein, wenn Schutzmechanismen, wie z. B. die Haftung oder das Risiko eines Reputationsverlustes, besonders schwach ausgeprägt sind. Es kann abgeleitet werden, dass bei privaten Unternehmen das Risiko eines Reputationsverlustes im Vergleich zu kapitalmarktorientierten Unternehmen geringer ist. Weiterhin ist das Haftungsrisiko für den Abschlussprüfer in Deutschland verglichen mit angelsächsischen Ländern geringer.
Damit untersucht die Arbeit die Unabhängigkeit in einem Umfeld, in dem diese besonders gefährdet ist. Als Surrogat wird die Wahrscheinlichkeit einer Going-Concern-Modifikation („GCM“) herangezogen. GCM können als Indikator für die Prüfungsqualität besonders geeignet sein, da sie ein direktes Ergebnis der Tätigkeit des Abschlussprüfers sind und von ihm formuliert und verantwortet werden. Für das Surrogat GCM ist für Deutschland im Bereich der privaten Unternehmen bislang keine Studie bekannt.
This dissertation consists of three contributions. Each addresses one specific aspect of intergenerational income mobility and is intended to be a stand-alone analysis. All chapters use comparable data for Germany and the United States to conduct country comparisons. As there are usually a large number of studies available for the United States, this approach is useful for comparing the empirical results to the existing literature.
The first part conducts a direct country comparison of the structure and extent of intergenerational income mobility in Germany and the United States. In line with existing results, the estimated intergenerational income mobility of 0.49 in the United States is significantly higher than that of 0.31 in Germany. While the results for the intergenerational rank mobility are relatively similar, the level of intergenerational income share mobility is higher in the United States than in Germany. There are no significant indications of a nonlinear run of intergenerational income elasticity. A final decomposition of intergenerational income inequality shows both greater income mobility and stronger progressive income growth for Germany compared to the United States. Overall, no clear ranking of the two countries can be identified. To conclude, several economic policy recommendations to increase intergenerational income mobility in Germany are discussed.
The second part examines the transmission channels of intergenerational income persistence in Germany and the United States. In principle, there are two ways in which well-off families may influence the adult incomes of their children: first through direct investments in their children's human capital (investment effect ), and second through the indirect transmission of human capital from parents to children (endowment effect ). In order to disentangle these two effects, a descriptive as well as a structural decomposition method are utilized. The results suggest that the investment effect and the endowment effect each account for approximately half of the estimated intergenerational income elasticity in Germany, while the investment effect is substantially more influential in the United States with a share of around 70 percent. With regard to economic policy, these results imply that equality of opportunity for children born to poor parents cannot be reached by the supply of financial means alone. Conversely, an efficient policy must additionally substitute for the missing direct transmission of human capital within socio-economically weak families.
The third part explicitly focuses on the intergenerational income mobility among daughters. The restriction to men is commonly made in the empirical literature due to women‘s lower labor market participation. While most men work full-time, the majority of (married) women still work only part-time or not at all. Especially with the occurrence of assortative mating, daughters from well-off families are likely to marry rich men and might decide to reduce their labor supply as a result. Thus, the individual labor income of a daughter might not be a good indicator for her actual economic status. The baseline regression analysis shows a higher intergenerational income elasticity in Germany and a lower intergenerational income elasticity in the United States for women as compared to men. However, a separation by marital status reveals that in both countries unmarried women exhibit a higher intergenerational income elasticity than unmarried men, while married women feature a lower intergenerational income elasticity than married men. The reason for the lower mobility of unmarried women turns out to be a stronger human capital transmission from fathers to daughters than to sons. The higher mobility of married women is driven by a weaker human capital transmission and a higher labor supply elasticity with respect to spousal income for women as compared to men. In order to further study the effects of assortative mating, the subsample of married children is analyzed by different types of income. It shows that the estimated intergenerational income elasticity of children's household incomes is even higher than that of their individual incomes. This can be seen as an indication for strong assortative mating. If household income is interpreted as a measure of children‘s actual economic welfare, there are barely any differences between sons and daughters. The intergenerational income elasticity of spousal income with respect to parental income is again relatively high, which in turn supports the hypothesis of strong assortative mating. The elasticity of the sons-in-law with respect to their fathers-in-law in Germany is even higher than that of the sons with respect to their own fathers.
Die vorliegende Studie liefert in drei gleichrangigen Teilen empirische Befunde zu den Steuern und Beiträgen auf lokaler Ebene.
In den ersten beiden Teilen wird die Realsteuerpolitik deutscher Kommunen quantitativ datenempirisch und qualitativ in Form einer Expertenbefragung untersucht. Hierbei wird insbesondere der Frage nachgegangen, welche Determinanten das gemeindliche Hebesatzniveau bei der Gewerbesteuer und den Grundsteuern A und B bestimmen.
Der dritte Teil analysiert die Beitragseinnahmen der Industrie- und Handelskammern. Der IHK-Beitrag ist deren zentrale Einnahmeposition und knüpft ebenfalls an der gewerbesteuerlichen Bemessungsgrundlage an. Die Abhängigkeit von einer zum Teil volatilen Bemessungsgrundlage stellt die Kammern bei ihrer Budgetplanung vor große Herausforderungen. Zur Steigerung der Planungsgenauigkeit wurde ein Prognosemodell entwickelt, das einen präziseren Rückschluss auf künftige Beitragseinnahmen zulässt.
Die Internationalisierung des Einzelhandels hat in den letzten 20 Jahren und vor allem in den 1990er Jahren stark zugenommen. Auch in Deutschland ist diese Entwicklung deutlich wahrzunehmen. Insbesondere Einzelhandelsunternehmen aus den USA – wie beispielsweise Woolworth, Foot Locker, Toys R Us oder Staples – sind mit einer hohen Filialdichte in Deutschland vertreten.
Ende 1997 betrat Wal-Mart – das mit Abstand größte Einzelhandelsunternehmen der Welt – den deutschen Markt. Der Markteintritt löste starke Reaktionen seitens des ansässigen Einzelhandels aus, die Medien verfolgten die ersten Schritte von Wal-Mart sehr genau. Nach sechs Jahren Präsens auf dem deutschen Markt hat Wal-Mart jedoch noch keine signifikante Position im Handelsgefüge erreichen können. Fraglich ist, ob den zahlreichen strategischen und operativen Problemen nur eine unzureichende Marktanalyse zugrunde liegt oder ob US-amerikanische Einzelhändler auf dem deutschen Markt vor besondere Herausforderungen gestellt sind?
Die vorliegende Studie befasst sich mit den Internationalisierungsstrategien US-amerikanischer Einzelhandelsunternehmen, die in Deutschland tätig sind. Ein Schwerpunkt liegt auf der Untersuchung von Wal-Mart. Stärken und Schwächen der Internationalisierung werden auf der Grundlage einer Analyse des Heimatmarktes USA herausgearbeitet. In einem internationalen Vergleich erfolgt die Ermittlung der Besonderheiten des deutschen Einzelhandelsmarktes für US-amerikanische Einzelhändler. Strategien des Markteintritts und der Marktdurchdringung sowie die Standortwahl und Diffusion stehen im Mittelpunkt der Untersuchung US-amerikanischer Einzelhändler in Deutschland.
Economists (should) care about regions! On the one hand this is true because macroeconomic shocks have vastly different effects across regions. The pressing topics of robotization
and artificial intelligence, Brexit, or U.S. tariffs will affect Würzburg differently than Berlin,
implying varying interests among its population, firms and politicians. On the other hand,
shocks in individual regions, such as inventions, bankruptcies or the attraction of a major
plant can, through trade and input-output linkages, magnify to aggregate effects of macroe-
conomic importance. Yet, regional heterogeneities in Germany and the complicated network
of linkages that connect regions are still not well documented nor understood. A fact that
is especially true for local labor markets that are of core interest to regional policy makers
and that also feature substantial heterogeneity.
This thesis provides a thorough quantification of such heterogeneities and an in-depth analysis of the sources and mechanisms that drive these differences.
Die 15 deutschen UNESCO-Biosphärenreservate sollen als Modellregionen eine nachhaltige Entwicklung verwirklichen, wozu neben dem Schutz des Naturhaushaltes und der genetischen Ressourcen auch die sozio-ökonomische Entwicklung der Region zu gewährleisten ist. Als Zielgebiete touristischer Nachfrage stellt der Tourismus potentiell eine Entwicklungschance, und laut den deutschen MAB-Kriterien, ein relevantes Handlungsfeld für die Biosphärenreservats-Verwaltungen dar. Die vorliegende Arbeit behandelt aus zwei unterschiedlichen Perspektiven die Frage, inwieweit Tourismus zur nachhaltigen Regionalentwicklung in den deutschen Biosphärenreservaten beiträgt.
Zum einen wird mittels einer Wertschöpfungsanalyse die touristische Nachfrage und dadurch ausgelöste regionalökonomische Effekte untersucht, was eine Erfassung der Besucher hinsichtlich Anzahl, Strukturen, Ausgabenniveaus, Aufenthaltsmerkmalen sowie Einstellungen umfasst. Zum anderen wird ermittelt, inwieweit die Biosphärenreservats-Verwaltungen die touristische Entwicklung auf regionaler Ebene im Sinne der nachhaltigen Regionalentwicklung mitgestalten. Basierend auf einer touristischen Typisierung der deutschen Biosphärenreservate werden hierzu sechs ausgewählte Biosphärenreservate (Pfälzerwald, Rhön, Schaalsee, Spreewald, Südost-Rügen, Vessertal-Thüringer Wald) eingehend untersucht.
Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Besucherzahlen zwischen 487.000 im Vessertal-Thüringer Wald und 6,4 Mio. in der Rhön schwanken. Insgesamt wird in den sechs Gebieten ein Bruttoumsatz von 908 Mio. € generiert, was einer Wertschöpfung von 474 Mio. € und 28.000 Einkommensäquivalenten entspricht. Der Wert relativiert sich, betrachtet man die Biosphärenreservatsbesucher im engeren Sinn, die für rund 7 % des Bruttoumsatzes bzw. 1.917 Einkommensäquivalente verantwortlich sind. Das Segment ist tendenziell schwach vertreten, jedoch empfänglich für die Ansätze der nachhaltigen Ausrichtung des Tourismus seitens der Biosphärenreservats-Verwaltung. Es präferiert z.B. traditionelle Kulturlandschaftsbilder, Bio-Labels und Regionalität bei Produkten und ist offen gegenüber Schutzbemühungen, was sich jedoch noch nicht im Ausgabeverhalten widerspiegelt.
Hier setzen die Verwaltungen der Biosphärenreservate im Tourismus an und werden auf Destinationsebene im Bereich der strategischen Planung, der Fördermittelakquise, der Generierung touristischer Angebote und Dienstleistungen, der Entwicklung von Regionalvermarktungs- und Partner-Initiativen sowie der Positionierung des Biosphärenreservates als Destination und Marke aktiv. Dennoch wird in allen Gebieten nahezu ausnahmslos die Integration des Biosphärenreservates als Akteur, Attraktion und Angebotsfamilie und verbindende Thematik auf Destinationsebene als verbesserungswürdig eingestuft. Im Rahmen der Arbeit können dafür relevante Faktoren abgeleitet werden, die somit Ansatzpunkte darstellen, den noch ausbaufähigen Beitrag des Tourismus zur nachhaltigen Regionalentwicklung in Biosphärenreservaten im Sinne tangibler und intangibler Effekte zu steigern.
Chapter 2 concerns the audit market for German credit institutions (excluding savings banks and cooperative banks), and the presented study allows conclusions to be drawn regarding recent concentration levels of this particular audit market. The last reliable (statistical) studies concerning the audit market for German credit institutions were published several years ago (Grothe 2005; Lenz 1996b; Lenz 1997; Lenz 1998). This is surprising because parts of the new regulations concerning the audit market for public-interest entities—which should also apply to credit institutions (European Commission 2006c)—in Europe would require analyses of the audit market concentration to be performed on a regular basis. Therefore, this study begins to fill this research gap, and it reveals that the audit market for German credit institutions was highly concentrated (market leadership: KPMG AG WPG and PricewaterhouseCoopers AG WPG) in 2006 and 2010. Moreover, the findings also highlight that between these years, neither a notable trend toward higher levels of concentration nor a deconcentration process was evident. Finally, it is illustrated that the regulatory requirements for publishing audit fees and the corresponding right to claim exemption (§§ 285 Sentence 1 No. 17, 314 (1) No. 9 Commercial Code) do not allow the calculation of concentration figures that cover the entire audit market for credit institutions. Thus, it will continue to be necessary to use surrogates for audit fees, and analyses reveal that the arithmetic mean of the total business volume (or total assets) of a credit institution and its square root is a very good surrogate for calculating concentration measures based on audit fees.
Chapter 3 seeks to determine whether public oversight of public-interest entities (PIEs) increases audit fees specifically in the financial industry, which is already a highly regulated industry characterized by intense supervision. To answer this question, a sample of 573 German credit institutions is examined over the 2009–2011 period, as not all credit institutions were considered PIEs in Germany (until very recently). First, the results show that a credit institution’s business risk is related to audit fees. In addition, the findings reveal not only that PIE credit institutions pay statistically significantly higher audit fees but also that this effect is economically substantial (representing an audit fee increase of 31.38%). Finally, there are several indications that the relationship between (other) credit institutions’ business risks and audit fees is greater for PIE credit institutions.
Chapter 4 examines the association between the results of auditor ratification votes and perceived external financial reporting quality. As has been recently remarked by Wei et al. (2015), far too little is known about shareholders’ interests in and perceptions of the election, approval or ratification of auditors. Although auditor ratification by shareholders is normally a routine, non-binding action and the voting ratios are in the range of 95% or higher, the SEC emphasized the importance of this process by amending the disclosure requirements for such voting results in 2010 (SEC 2009; SEC 2010). This study demonstrates that the results of auditor ratification votes are associated with market reactions to earnings surprises (SEC registrants; 2010 to 2013). Moreover, there are moderate indications that this effect may be positively related to higher levels of information asymmetry between managers and shareholders, that such voting results contain incremental informational content beyond that of other publicly available audit-related information, and that the time lag between the ratification of an auditor and the earnings announcement influences the vote’s importance. Finally, the study sheds additional light on an overlooked audit-related topic (e.g., Dao et al. 2012; Hermanson et al. 2009; Krishnan and Ye 2005; Sainty et al. 2002), and illustrates its relation to accounting. More importantly, the provided evidence indicates that disclosure of the results of auditor ratification votes might benefit (prospective) shareholders.
Chapter 5 addresses the question of whether and when shareholders may have a negative perception of an auditor’s economic dependence on the client. The results for a Big 4 client sample in the U.S. (2010 to 2014) show that the economic importance of the client—measured at the audit office-level—is negatively associated with shareholders’ perceptions of external financial reporting quality—measured in terms of the earnings response coefficient and the ex ante cost of equity capital—and, therefore, is perceived as a threat to auditor independence. Moreover, the study reveals that shareholders primarily regard independence due to client dependence as a problem for firms that are more likely to be in financially distressed conditions.
The dissertation at hand focuses on the enforcement of accounting standards in Germany. The legal basis of the external enforcement of accounting standards in Germany was created by the „Bilanzkontrollgesetz” (Financial Reporting Enforcement Act) at the end of 2004. An enforcement mechanism was installed to enforce accounting standard compliance by regular reviews of disclosed financial statements. The system was established as implementation of EU guidelines. Since 2005, International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) shall be applied for consolidated financial statement of firms listed on a regulated market segment within the European Union (EU) (Regulation EC No. 1606/2002). Simultaneously to the harmonization of accounting standards, the EU fostered the standardization of enforcement systems to ensure compliance with international accounting standards. Par. 16 of the so-called “IAS Regulation” mandates the “Committee of European Securities Regulators” (CESR) to “develop a common approach to enforcement". Germany’s unique two-tiered system operates since July 2005; it involves the “Deutsche Pruefstelle fuer Rechnungslegung” (Financial Reporting Enforcement Panel), a newly established private organization primarily assigned to conduct the reviews. As the second tier, the „Bundesanstalt fuer Finanzdienstleistungsaufsicht” (Federal Financial Supervisory Authority) has the sovereign authority to order the publication of errors („error announcements“) and if necessary, to force the cooperation of firms in the review process.
The dissertation is structured as follows. A general introduction focuses on the theoretical background and the reasoning for the need of external enforcement mechanisms. The common approach to enforcement in the European Union is described. Building on this, the thesis consists of three individual essays that analyze three specific questions in the context of the enforcement of financial reporting standards in Germany.
The first paper focuses on the systematical evaluation of the information contained in 100 selected error announcements (from a total population of 151 evaluable announcements). The study finds that error announcements on average contain 3.64 single errors and 77% affect the reported profit. Relatively small as well as big, highly levered and rather unprofitable firms are overrepresented in the sample of misstatement firms. In a second step, the essay investigates the development of censured firms over time; the pre- and post-misstatement development of the firms in terms of balance sheet data, financial ratios and (real) earnings management are tracked. The analysis detects increasing leverage ratios and a decline in profitability over time. In the year of misstatement firms report large total and discretionary accruals, indicating earnings management. Compared to matched control firms, significant differences in profitability, market valuation, earnings management and real activities manipulations are observable. A major contribution of this first study is the examination of trends in financial data and (real) earnings management over a number of years surrounding misstatements as well as the elaboration of the distinction to non-misstating firms. The results show the meaning of the enforcement of IFRS for the quality of financial reporting to standard setters, policy makers, and investors in Germany.
The second paper examines the interrelation of enforcement releases, firm characteristics and earnings quality. Prior literature documents the correlation between underperformance in financial ratios and the probability of erroneous disclosure of financial statements; this study provides evidence for differences in characteristics between firms with enforcement releases and control firms as well as a broad sample of German publicly traded firms (4,730 firm-year observations). Furthermore, research affirms the connection of financial ratios to earnings quality metrics. The accuracy of financial information is considered to be correlated with its quality and therefore the differences in earnings quality between various sub-samples is examined. Overall, the results document the underperformance in important financial ratios as well as indicate an inferior earnings quality of firms subject to enforcement releases vis-a-vis the control groups. These results hold with regard to both different earnings quality specifications and different periods observed. This study appends the earnings quality discussion and contributes to develop a comprehensive picture of accounting quality for the unique institutional settings of Germany. The paper shows that a conjoint two-tier public and private enforcement system is effective and might be an adequate model for other countries. Implications for the regulation of corporate governance, the enforcement panel and the auditor are identified.
The third essay additionally considers the role of the auditor. The firms subject to error announcements are used to evaluate the consequences of increasing earnings management over time on enforcement releases and their recognition in audit fees. Prior literature provides evidence on a phenomenon called „balance sheet bloat” that is due to income increasing earnings management and later influences the disclosure of misstated financial statements. The evidence of earnings management recognition in audit fees and findings on the content of future information in audit fees leads to the hypothesis that auditors recognize increasing audit risk in fees before the enforcement process starts. The study extends related earnings management and audit fee literature by modeling the development of earnings management within the misstatement firms and systematically link it to auditor reactions. Significant predictive power of different commonly used accrual measures for enforcement releases in the period prior and up to the misstatement period are found by the study. In the same period of time an increase in audit fees, e.g. the recognition of increased audit risk, can be observed. A possible audit fee effect after the misstatement period is investigated, but no significant relation is obtained.
The dissertation closes with a summary of the main findings, a conclusion to the connection of the three essays as well as subsumption of findings in the accounting literature.
In der Dissertationsschrift werden die wesentlichen Merkmale von direkten und indirekten Immobilieninvestitionen in Deutschland für vier Spezialthemen der Immobilienbesteuerung dargestellt und somit ein Einblick in die vielseitige und komplexe Besteuerung von direkten und indirekten Immobilieninvestitionen gewährt. Die Investitionsmöglichkeiten in direkte Immobilienanlageformen werden in Kapitel 2 und 3 besprochen. Die indirekte Immobilienanlage und ihre Auswirkungen auf die Preisbildung werden in den Kapiteln 4 und 5 betrachtet. In der Schlussbemerkung (Kapitel 6) werden wesentliche Erkenntnisse dieser Arbeit zusammengefasst. Im Detail werden in den vier Hauptkapiteln folgende Fragestellungen bearbeitet: • Die steuerlichen Regelungen bei selbstgenutzten und vermieteten Wohnimmobilien führen stets zu Klientel-Effekten. Im Vermietungsfall bewirkt der progressive Ein-kommensteuertarif eine Begünstigung von Steuerpflichtigen mit hohen Einkom¬men. Lediglich eine steuersatzunabhängige Förderung kann dazu führen, dass ein durchschnittlich verdienender Eigenheimkäufer Förderquoten und Investitions-renditen auf demselben Niveau wie ein vermietender Spitzenverdiener erreicht. • Die Modernisierung der Immobilienförderung innerhalb der Altersvorsorge („Wohn-Riester“) ermöglicht den Einsatz des Riester-Kapitals als echtes Eigen-kapital und dominiert die klassische Eigen- und Fremdfinanzierung. Zudem ist die Tilgung eines zum Immobilienerwerb aufgenommenen Darlehens in die staatliche Förderung integriert worden und begünstigt so die Rückführung des steuerlich benachteiligten Fremdkapitals im Fall der Selbstnutzung. • Die Wahl des steuerlichen Wertansatzes bei Vermögensübertragung auf eine steuerbegünstigte Immobilienverwaltung ist nicht trivial. Die Vorteilhaftigkeit der Wertansatzalternativen ist maßgebliche durch den Abschreibungsverlauf, die Länge des Investitionszeitraums sowie den rechtsformspezifische Steuersatzdifferenzen beeinflusst. Es zeigt sich, dass eine Aufdeckung der stillen Reserven regelmäßig nur in Verbindung mit zusätzlichen Begünstigungen sinnvoll ist. Eine allgemeine Vorteilhaftigkeit für die Umwandlung in einen REIT besteht nicht. • Steuerprivilegien können durch gesetzlich erzwungene Finanzierungsstrukturen deutlich reduziert bzw. vernichtet werden. Insbesondere der REIT wird an der Ausübung seiner steueroptimierten Finanzierungsstrategie gehindert, sodass die Erlangung des REIT-Status kein Garant für niedrige Kapitalkosten ist. Die ver-mögensverwaltende Immobilien-AG stellt aufgrund der flexiblen Ausschüttungs- und Finanzierungspolitik eine Alternative zu dem stark reglementierten REIT dar.