541 Physikalische Chemie
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- Fraunhofer-Institut für Silicatforschung ISC (3)
- Institut für Optik und Atomare Physik, Technische Universität Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany (2)
- Laboratory for Chemistry and Life Science, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama 226-8503, Japan (2)
- Center for Nanosystems Chemistry (CNC), Universität Würzburg (1)
- Center for Nanosystems Chemistry (CNC), Universität Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany (1)
- Center of Excellence for Science and Technology - Integration of Mediterranean region (STIM), Faculty of Science, University of Split, Poljička cesta 35, 2100 Split, Croatia (1)
- Charles University, Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, Ke Karlovu 5, 121 16 Prague, Czech Republic (1)
- Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain (1)
- Department of Chemistry, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Brook-Taylor-Strasse 2, 12489 Berlin, Germany (1)
- Department of Chemistry, Sungkyunkwan University, 440-746 Suwon, Republic of Korea (1)
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- M-1240-2017 (1)
We present a theoretical study on exciton–exciton annihilation (EEA) in a molecular dimer. This process is monitored using a fifth-order coherent two-dimensional (2D) spectroscopy as was recently proposed by Dostál et al. [Nat. Commun. 9, 2466 (2018)]. Using an electronic three-level system for each monomer, we analyze the different paths which contribute to the 2D spectrum. The spectrum is determined by two entangled relaxation processes, namely, the EEA and the direct relaxation of higher lying excited states. It is shown that the change of the spectrum as a function of a pulse delay can be linked directly to the presence of the EEA process.
For the rational design of new fluorophores, reliable predictions of fluorescence quantum yields from first principles would be of great help. However, efficient computational approaches for predicting transition rates usually assume that the vibrational structure is harmonic. While the harmonic approximation has been used successfully to predict vibrationally resolved spectra and radiative rates, its reliability for non-radiative rates is much more questionable. Since non-adiabatic transitions convert large amounts of electronic energy into vibrational energy, the highly excited final vibrational states deviate greatly from harmonic oscillator eigenfunctions. We employ a time-dependent formalism to compute radiative and non-radiative rates for transitions and study the dependence on model parameters. For several coumarin dyes we compare different adiabatic and vertical harmonic models (AS, ASF, AH, VG, VGF, VH), in order to dissect the
importance of displacements, frequency changes and Duschinsky rotations. In addition we analyze the effect of different broadening functions (Gaussian, Lorentzian or Voigt). Moreover, to assess the qualitative influence of anharmonicity on the internal conversion rate, we develop a simplified anharmonic model. We adress the reliability of these models considering the potential errors introduced by the harmonic approximation and the phenomenological width of the broadening function.
The multistate metadynamics for automatic exploration of conical intersection seams and systematic location of minimum energy crossing points in molecular systems and its implementation into the software package metaFALCON is presented. Based on a locally modified energy gap between two Born–Oppenheimer electronic states as a collective variable, multistate metadynamics trajectories are driven toward an intersection point starting from an arbitrary ground state geometry and are subsequently forced to explore the conical intersection seam landscape. For this purpose, an additional collective variable capable of distinguishing structures within the seam needs to be defined and an additional bias is introduced into the off-diagonal elements of an extended (multistate) electronic Hamiltonian. We demonstrate the performance of the algorithm on the examples of the 1,3-butadiene, benzene, and 9H-adenine molecules, where multiple minimum energy crossing points could be systematically located using the Wiener number or Cremer–Pople parameters as collective variables. Finally, with the example of 9H-adenine, we show that the multistate metadynamics potential can be used to obtain a global picture of a conical intersection seam. Our method can be straightforwardly connected with any ab initio or semiempirical electronic structure theory that provides energies and gradients of the respective electronic states and can serve for systematic elucidation of the role of conical intersections in the photophysics and photochemistry of complex molecular systems, thus complementing nonadiabatic dynamics simulations.
Comparison of moving and fixed basis sets for nonadiabatic quantum dynamics at conical intersections
(2020)
We assess the performance of two different types of basis sets for nonadiabatic quantum dynamics at conical intersections. The basis sets of both types are generated using Ehrenfest trajectories of nuclear coherent states. These trajectories can either serve as a moving (time-dependent) basis or be employed to sample a fixed (time-independent) basis. We demonstrate on the example of two-state two-dimensional and three-state five-dimensional models that both basis set types can yield highly accurate results for population transfer at intersections, as compared with reference quantum dynamics. The details of wave packet evolutions are discussed for the case of the two-dimensional model. The fixed basis is found to be superior to the moving one in reproducing nonlocal spreading and maintaining correct shape of the wave packet upon time evolution. Moreover, for the models considered, the fixed basis set outperforms the moving one in terms of computational efficiency.
Comparison of moving and fixed basis sets for nonadiabatic quantum dynamics at conical intersections
(2020)
We assess the performance of two different types of basis sets for nonadiabatic quantum dynamics at conical intersections. The basis sets of both types are generated using Ehrenfest trajectories of nuclear coherent states. These trajectories can either serve as a moving (time-dependent) basis or be employed to sample a fixed (time-independent) basis. We demonstrate on the example of two-state two-dimensional and three-state five-dimensional models that both basis set types can yield highly accurate results for population transfer at intersections, as compared with reference quantum dynamics. The details of wave packet evolutions are discussed for the case of the two-dimensional model. The fixed basis is found to be superior to the moving one in reproducing true nonlocal spreading and maintaining correct shape of the wave packet upon time evolution. Moreover, for the models considered, the fixed basis set outperforms the moving one in terms of computational efficiency.
The origin of the solvent dependence of fluorescence quantum yields in dipolar merocyanine dyes
(2019)
Fluorophores with high quantum yields are desired for a variety of applications. Optimization of promising chromophores requires an understanding of the non-radiative decay channels that compete with the emission of photons. We synthesized a new derivative of the famous laser dye 4-dicyanomethylen-2-methyl-6-p-dimethylaminostyryl-4H-pyran (DCM),i.e., merocyanine 4-(dicyanomethylene)-2-tert-butyl-6-[3-(3-butyl-benzothiazol-2-ylidene)1-propenyl]-4H-pyran (DCBT). We measured fluorescence lifetimes and quantum yields in a variety of solvents and found a trend opposite to the energy gap law.This motivated a theoretical investigation into the possible non-radiative decay channels. We propose that a barrier to a conical intersection exists that is very sensitive to the solvent polarity. The conical intersection is characterized by a twisted geometry which allows a subsequent photoisomerization. Transient absorption measurements confirmed the formation of a photoisomer in unpolar solvents, while the measurements of fluorescence quantum yields at low temperature demonstrated the existence of an activation energy barrier.
Collective Response in DNA-Stabilized Silver Cluster Assemblies from First-Principles Simulations
(2019)
We investigate fluorescence resonant energy transfer and concurrent electron dynamics in a pair of DNA-stabilized silver clusters. For this purpose we introduce a methodology for the simulation of collective optoelectronic properties of coupled molecular aggregates starting from first-principles quantum chemistry, which can be further applied to a broad range of coupled molecular systems to study their electro-optical response. Our simulations reveal the existence of low-energy coupled excitonic states, which enable ultrafast energy transport between subunits, and give insight into the origin of the fluorescence signal in coupled DNA-stabilized silver clusters, which have been recently experimentally detected. Hence, we demonstrate the possibility of constructing ultrasmall energy transmission lines and optical converters based on these hybrid molecular systems.
The photophysics of a molecular triad consisting of a BODIPY dye and two pyrene chromophores attached in 2-position are investigated by steady state and fs-time resolved transient absorption spectroscopy as well as by field induced surface hopping (FISH) simulations. While the steady state measurements indicate moderate chromophore interactions within the triad, the time resolved measurements show upon pyrene excitation a delocalised excited state which localises onto the BODIPY chromophore with a time constant of 0.12 ps. This could either be interpreted as an internal conversion process within the excitonically coupled chromophores or as an energy transfer from the pyrenes to the BODIPY dye. The analysis of FISH-trajectories reveals an oscillatory behaviour where the excitation hops between the pyrene units and the BODIPY dye several times until finally they become localised on the BODIPY chromophore within 100 fs. This is accompanied by an ultrafast nonradiative relaxation within the excitonic manifold mediated by the nonadiabatic coupling. Averaging over an ensemble of trajectories allowed us to simulate the electronic state population dynamics and determine the time constants for the nonradiative transitions that mediate the ultrafast energy transfer and exciton localisation on BODIPY.
Excitons in the molecular aggregates of chromophores are key participants in important processes such as photosynthesis or the functioning of organic photovoltaic devices. Therefore, the exploration of exciton dynamics is crucial. Here we report on exciton localization during excited-state dynamics of the recently synthesized tetracene trimer [Liu et al., Org. Lett., 2017, 19, 580]. We employ the surface hopping approach to nonadiabatic molecular dynamics in conjunction with the long-range corrected time-dependent density functional tight binding (LC-TDDFTB) method [Humeniuk and Mitrić, Comput. Phys. Commun., 2017, 221, 174]. Utilizing a set of descriptors based on the transition density matrix, we perform comprehensive analysis of exciton dynamics. The obtained results reveal an ultrafast exciton localization to a single tetracene unit of the trimer during excited-state dynamics, along with exciton transfer between units.
Reactive hydrocarbon molecules like radicals, biradicals and carbenes are not only key players in combustion processes and interstellar and atmospheric chemistry, but some of them are also important intermediates in organic synthesis. These systems typically possess many low-lying, strongly coupled electronic states. After light absorption, this leads to rich photodynamics characterized by a complex interplay of nuclear and electronic motion, which is still not comprehensively understood and not easy to investigate both experimentally and theoretically. In order to elucidate trends and contribute to a more general understanding, we here review our recent work on excited-state dynamics of open-shell hydrocarbon species using time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy and field-induced surface hopping simulations, and report new results on the excited-state dynamics of the tropyl and the 1-methylallyl radical. The different dynamics are compared, and the difficulties and future directions of time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy and excited state dynamics simulations of open-shell hydrocarbon molecules are discussed.
In the last two decades, coherent multidimensional femtosecond spectroscopy has become a powerful and versatile tool to investigate chemical dynamics of a broad variety of quantum systems. The combination of transient information, equivalent to pumpprobe spectroscopy, with information about coupling between energetic states and the system environment allows an extensive insight into atomic and molecular properties. Many experimental 2D setups employ the coherence-detected approach, where nonlinear system responses are emitted as coherent electric _elds which are detected after spatial separation from the excitation pulses. As an alternative to this experimentally demanding approach, population-based 2D spectroscopy has been established. Here, the coherent information is encoded in the phases of a collinear excitation-pulse train and extracted from incoherent signals like uorescence via phase cycling. In principle, the use of uorescence as observable can boost the sensitivity down to the single-molecule level. The aim of this work was the realization of a pulse-shaper assisted fully collinear uorescence-detected 2D setup and the conducting of proof-of-principle experiments in the liquid phase. This inherently phase-stable and compact setup has been presented in chapter 3, with the utilized pulse shaper granting amplitude and phase modulation on a shot-to-shot basis. Two di_erent types of white-light sources have been applied and evaluated with regard to their respective advantages for 2D uorescence spectroscopy. A variety of artifact sources that can occur with the present setup have been discussed, and correction schemes and instructions for avoiding these artifacts have been provided. In chapter 4, the setup has been demonstrated by employing a four-pulse sequence on cresyl violet in ethanol. A detailed data-acquisition and data-analysis procedure has been presented, where phase cycling is used for extraction of the nonlinear contributions. Depending on the phase-cycling scheme, it is possible to recover all nonlinear contributions in a single measurement. Well-known quantum-beating behavior of cresyl violet during the population time could be reproduced. Due to measuring in a rotating-frame environment and 1 kHz shot-to-shot pulse incrementation, it was possible to obtain a 2D spectrum for one population time in 6 s. Via error evaluation it has been shown that 10_ averaging (1 min) is su_cient to obtain a root-mean-square error of < 0:05 compared to 400_ averaging, proving that the utilized acquisition scheme is well suited. The realization of the _rst experimental uorescence-detected 2Q 2D experiment and the _rst experimental access to the theoretically predicted 1Q-2Q contribution
Space- and time-resolved UV-to-NIR surface spectroscopy and 2D nanoscopy at 1 MHz repetition rate
(2019)
We describe a setup for time-resolved photoemission electron microscopy (TRPEEM) with aberration correction enabling 3 nm spatial resolution and sub-20 fs temporal resolution. The latter is realized by our development of a widely tunable (215–970 nm) noncollinear optical parametric amplifier (NOPA) at 1 MHz repetition rate. We discuss several exemplary applications. Efficient photoemission from plasmonic Au nanoresonators is investigated with phase-coherent pulse pairs from an actively stabilized interferometer. More complex excitation fields are created with a liquid-crystal-based pulse shaper enabling amplitude and phase shaping of NOPA pulses with spectral components from 600 to 800 nm. With this system we demonstrate spectroscopy within a single plasmonic nanoslit resonator by spectral amplitude shaping and investigate the local field dynamics with coherent two-dimensional (2D) spectroscopy at the nanometer length scale (“2D nanoscopy”). We show that the local response varies across a distance as small as 33 nm in our sample. Further, we report two-color pump–probe experiments using two independent NOPA beamlines. We extract local variations of the excited-state dynamics of a monolayered 2D material (WSe2) that we correlate with low-energy electron microscopy (LEEM) and reflectivity (LEER) measurements. Finally, we demonstrate the in-situ sample preparation capabilities for organic thin films and their characterization via spatially resolved electron diffraction and dark-field LEEM.
The aim of this thesis was to develop new automatic enhanced sampling methods by extending the idea of Parrinello’s metadynamics to multistate problems and by introducing new quantum-mechanical electronic collective variables. These methods open up a rich perspective for applications to the photophysical processes in complex molecular systems, which play a major role in many natural processes such as vision and photosynthesis, but also in the development of new materials for organic electronics, whose function depends on specific electronic properties such as biradicalicity.
Doping plays a decisive role for the functionality of semiconductor-based (opto-)electronic
devices. Hence, the technological utilization of semiconductors necessitates control and a
fundamental understanding of the doping process. However, for low-dimensional systems like
carbon nanotubes, neither concentration nor distribution of charge carriers is currently well known.
The research presented in this thesis investigated the doping of semiconducting carbon nanotubes by spectroscopic methods. Samples of highly purified, intrinsic (6,5) single-wall carbon nanotubes were fabricated using polymer stabilization.
Chapter 4 showed that both electro- and redox chemical $p$-doping lead to identical bleaching,
blueshift, broadening and asymmetry of the S$_1$ exciton absorption band. The similar spectral changes induced by both doping schemes suggest that optical spectra can not be used to infer what process was used for doping. Perhaps more importantly, it also indicates that the distribution of charges and the character of the charge transfer states does not depend on the method by which doping was achieved.
The detailed analysis of the doping-induced spectral changes in chapter 5 suggests that surplus charges are distributed inhomogeneously. The hypothesis of carrier localization is consistent with the high sensitivity of the S$_1$ exciton photoluminescence to additional charge carriers and with the stretched-exponential decay of the exciton population following ultrafast excitation.
Both aspects are in good agreement with diffusion-limited contact quenching of excitons
at localized charges. Moreover, localized charges act – similar to structural defects – as
perturbations to the bandstructure as evidenced by a doping-induced increase of the D-band
antiresonance in the mid-infrared spectrum.
Quantum mechanical model calculations also suggest that counterions play a crucial role in
carrier localization. Counterion adsorption at the nanotube surface is thus believed to induce charge traps of more than 100 meV depth with a carrier localization length on the order of 3 - 4 nm. The doping-induced bleach of interband absorption is accompanied by an absorption increase in the IR region below 600 meV. The observed shift of the IR peak position indicates a continuous transition from localized to rather delocalized charge carriers. This transition is caused by the increase of the overlap of charge carrier wavefunctions at higher charge densities and was modeled by classical Monte-Carlo simulations of intraband absorption.
Chapter 6 discussed the spectroscopy of heavily (degenerately) doped nanotubes, which are
characterized by a Drude-response of free-carrier intraband absorption in the optical conductivity spectrum. In the NIR spectral region, the S$_1$ exciton and X$+^_1$ trion absorption is replaced by a nearly 1 eV broad and constant absorption signal, the so-called H-band. The linear and transient absorption spectra of heavily doped nanotubes suggest that the H-band can be attributed to free-carrier interband transitions.
Chapter 7 dealt with the quantification of charge carrier densities by linear absorption spectroscopy.
A particularly good measure of the carrier density is the S$_1$ exciton bleach. For a
bleach below about 50 %, the carrier density is proportional to the bleach. At higher doping
levels, deviations from the linear behavior were observed. For doping levels exceeding a
fully bleached S$_1$ band, the determination of the normalized oscillator strength f$\text{1st}$ over the
whole first subband region (trion, exciton, free e-h pairs) is recommended for quantification of carrier densities. Based on the nanotube density of states, the carrier density $n$ can be estimated using $n = 0.74\,\text{nm}^{−1} \cdot (1 − f_\text{1st})$.
In the last part of this thesis (chapter 8), the time-resolved spectroelectrochemistry was
extended to systems beyond photostable carbon nanotube films. The integration of a flowelectrolysis cell into the transient absorption spectrometer allows the investigation of in-situ electrochemically generated but photounstable molecules due to a continuous exchange of sample volume. First time-resolved experiments were successfully performed using the dye
methylene blue and its electrochemically reduced form leucomethylene blue.
Major advances in the chemistry of 5th and 6th row heavy p-block element compounds have recently uncovered intriguing reactivity patterns towards small molecules such as H\(_2\), CO\(_2\), and ethylene. However, well-defined, homogeneous insertion reactions with carbon monoxide, one of the benchmark substrates in this field, have not been reported to date. We demonstrate here, that a cationic bismuth amide undergoes facile insertion of CO into the Bi–N bond under mild conditions. This approach grants direct access to the first cationic bismuth carbamoyl species. Its characterization by NMR, IR, and UV/vis spectroscopy, elemental analysis, single-crystal X-ray analysis, cyclic voltammetry, and DFT calculations revealed intriguing properties, such as a reversible electron transfer at the bismuth center and an absorption feature at 353 nm ascribed to a transition involving σ- and π-type orbitals of the bismuth-carbamoyl functionality. A combined experimental and theoretical approach provided insight into the mechanism of CO insertion. The substrate scope could be extended to isonitriles.
In this thesis, the photophysics and spin chemistry of donor-photosensitizer-acceptor triads were investigated. While all investigated triads comprised a TAA as an electron donor and a NDI as an electron acceptor, the central photosensitizers (PS) were different chromophores based on the dipyrrin-motif. The purity and identity of all target compounds could be confirmed by NMR spectroscopy, mass spectrometry and elemental analysis.
The first part of the work dealt with dipyrrinato-complexes of cyclometalated heavy transition metals. The successful synthesis of novel triads based on Ir(III), Pt(II) and Pd(II) was presented. The optical and electrochemical properties indicated charge separation (CS), which was confirmed by transient absorption (TA) spectroscopy. TA-spectroscopy also revealed that the process of CS is significantly slower and less efficient for the triads based on Pt(II) and Pd(II) than for the analogous Ir(III) triads. This is mostly due to a much more convoluted reaction pathway, comprising several intermediate states before the formation of the final charge separated state (CSS2). On the other hand, CSS2 exhibits long lifetimes which are dependent on the central metal ion. While the Ir(III) triads show lifetimes of about 0.5 µs in MeCN, the Pt(II) and Pd(II) analogues show lifetimes of 1.5 µs. The magnetic field effect on the charge recombination (CR) kinetics of CSS2 was investigated by magnetic field dependent ns-TA spectroscopy and could be rationalized based on a classical kinetic scheme comprising only one magnetic field dependent rate constant k±. The behavior of k± shows a clear separation of the coherent and incoherent spin interconversion mechanisms. While the coherent spin evolution is due to the isotropic hyperfine coupling with the magnetic nuclei of the radical centers, the incoherent spin relaxation is due to a rotational modulation of the anisotropic hyperfine coupling tensor and is strongly dependent on the viscosity of the solvent. This dependence could be used to measure the nanoviscosity of the oligomeric solvent pTHF, which was found to be distinctly different from its macroviscosity.
The second part of the work dealt with bisdipyrrinato complexes and their bridged porphodimethenato (PDM) analogues. Initially, the suitability of the different chromophores for the use as PS in donor-acceptor substituted triads was tested by a systematic investigation of their steady state and transient properties. While the PDM-complex of Zn(II) and Pd(II) exhibited promising characteristics such as a high exited state lifetime and relatively intense emission, the purely organic parent PDM and the non-bridged bisdipyrrinato-Pd(II) complex were less suitable. The difference between the two Pd(II) complexes could be explained by a structural rearrangement of the non-bridged complex which results in a non-emissive metal centered triplet state with disphenoidal geometry. This rearrangement is prevented by the dimethylmethylene-bridges in the bridged analogue resulting in higher phosphorescence quantum yields and excited state lifetimes.
With the exception of the Zn(II)PDM-complex, the synthesis of novel donor acceptor substituted triads could be realized for all desired central chromophores. They were investigated equivalently to the cyclometalated triads described in the first part. The steady state properties indicate a stronger electronic coupling between the subunits due to the lack of unsaturated bridges between the donor and the central chromophore. Photoinduced CS occurs in all investigated triads. Due to the low exited state lifetimes of the central chromophores, CSS is formed less efficiently for the triads based on the unbridged Pd(II)-complex as well as the purely organic PDM. In the triad based on the bridged Pd(II) complex, the CR of CSS2 is faster than its formation resulting in low intermediate concentrations. For its elongated analogue, this is not the case and CSS2 can be observed clearly. Although the spin-chemistry of the triads based on bisdipyrrinato-Pd(II) and porphodimethenato-Pd(II) is less well understood, first interpretations of the magnetic field dependent decay kinetics gave results approximately equivalent to those obtained for the cyclometalated triads. Furthermore, the MFE was shown to be useful for the investigation of the quantum yield of CS and the identity of the observed CSSs.
In both parts of this work, the influence of the central photosensitizer on the photophysics and the spin chemistry of the triads could be shown. While the process of CS is directly dependent on the PS, the PS usually is not directly involved in the final CSSs. None the less, it can still indirectly affect the CR and spin chemistry of the CSS since it influences the electronic coupling between donor and acceptor, as well as the geometry of the triads.
We present a theoretical study on exciton–exciton annihilation (EEA) in a molecular dimer. This process is monitored using a fifth-order coherent two-dimensional (2D) spectroscopy as was recently proposed by Dostál et al. [Nat. Commun. 9, 2466 (2018)]. Using an electronic three-level system for each monomer, we analyze the different paths which contribute to the 2D spectrum. The spectrum is determined by two entangled relaxation processes, namely, the EEA and the direct relaxation of higher lying excited states. It is shown that the change of the spectrum as a function of a pulse delay can be linked directly to the presence of the EEA process.
We demonstrate two-quantum (2Q) coherent two-dimensional (2D)electronic spectroscopy using a shot-to-shot-modulated pulse shaper and fluorescence detection. Broadband collinear excitation is realized with the supercontinuum output of an argon-filled hollow-core fiber, enabling us to excite multiple transitions simultaneously in the visible range. The 2Q contribution is extracted via a three-pulse sequence with 16-fold phase cycling and simulated employing cresyl violet as a model system. Furthermore, we report the first experimental realization of one-quantum−two-quantum (1Q-2Q) 2D spectroscopy, offering less congested spectra as compared with the 2Q implementation. We avoid scattering artifacts and nonresonant solvent contributions by using fluorescence as the observable. This allows us to extract quantitative information about doubly excited states that agree with literature expectations. The high sensitivity and background-free nature of fluorescence detection allow for a general applicability of this method to many other systems.
Die vorliegende Dissertation widmete sich der Aufklärung der Photodissoziationsdynamik der drei Xylyl-Radikale ortho-, meta- und para-Xylyl sowie des Benzyl-Radikals mit Hilfe des Velocity-Map-Imagings. Diese reaktiven Intermediate sind insbesondere im Bereich der Verbrennungschemie von hoher Relevanz, da sie die primären Zerfallsprodukte der Xylole und des Toluols darstellen, welche als Antiklopfmittel in Ottokraftstoffen Verwendung finden.Dementsprechend ist eine Betrachtung des weiteren Zerfalls dieser resonanz-stabilisierten Radikale, insbesondere unter dem Gesichtspunkt der Rußbildung, von entscheidender Bedeutung.
Für alle drei Xylyl-Radikale konnte eine selektive pyrolytische Generierung aus den entsprechenden 2-(Methylphenyl)ethylnitriten realisiert werden. Die isomerspezifische Identifikation erfolgte mit Hilfe von REMPI-Spektroskopie der jeweiligen D0 -> D3-Übergänge. Nachfolgend wurde die Photodissoziation aller drei Xylyl-Isomere nach Anregung des D3-Zustandes bei ca. 310 nm und nach Anregung der D-Bande bei 250 nm untersucht. Das „einfachste” Experiment stellte in diesem Zusammenhang die Photodissoziation des para-Xylyl-Radikals dar. Es konnte die von Hemberger et al. in thermischen Zerfallsexperimenten beobachtete Reaktion p-Xylyl -> p-Xylylen + H verifiziert werden. Die VMI-Experimente lieferten die Kennwerte <fT>(309.6nm) = 33 % und <fT>(250nm) = 19 % unter Erhalt isotroper Images für beide Anregungswellenlängen. Die dazugehörigen Dissoziationsratenkonstanten wurden zu kH(309.6nm) ≈ 10^8 s-1 und kH(250nm) ≈ 5*10^7 s-1 bestimmt. Es ist verblüffend, dass die Photodissoziation scheinbar bei der höheren Anregungswellenlänge von 309.6 nm (und somit bei geringerer Anregungsenergie) schneller verläuft als bei 250 nm. Darüber hinaus ist es nicht möglich, die beobachteten Raten mittels des statistischen Modells der RRKM-Theorie zu beschreiben. Des Weiteren konnten auch die Translationsenergieverteilungen nicht mit dem „Quack-Fit” für statistische Dissoziationen angefittet werden. Bei der Photodissoziation des para-Xylyl-Radikals liegt eine Dissoziation nach Rückkehr in den rovibronisch hochangeregten elektronischen Grundzustand infolge der Photoanregung vor. Hierbei thermalisiert die innere Energie im elektronischen Grundzustand vor der Dissoziation scheinbar nur teilweise, sodass keine vollständige statistische Verteilung dieser innerhalb des para-Xylyls gegeben ist. Da dies eine Grundvoraussetzung der gängigen statistischen Modelle darstellt, ist es nicht verwunderlich, dass keine quantitative Reproduktion der experimentellen Ergebnisse durch Anwendung dieser Modelle ermöglicht wird.
Bei entsprechenden Experimenten zum ortho-Isomer konnten diese statistischen Modelle ebenfalls nicht zur quantitativen Beschreibung der Dissoziation verwendet werden. Abermals wurde mit kH(311.1nm) ≈ 10^8 s-1 und kH(250nm) ≈ 5*10^7 s-1 eine schnellere Dissoziation bei geringerer Anregungsenergie festgestellt. Dies erscheint demnach charakteristisch für die Xylyl-Radikale. Innerhalb der VMI-Experimente wurden isotrope Verteilungen erhalten, deren Fragmenttranslationsenergieverteilung nach Anregung des D3-Niveaus bei 311.1 nm jedoch nicht durch die von Hemberger et al. beschriebene Hauptreaktion o-Xylyl -> o-Xylylen + H erklärt werden konnte. Eine Fragmentation nach o-Xylyl -> Benzocyclobuten + H konnte auf diesem Weg als Hauptdissoziationspfad identifiziert werden. Innerhalb der Studien von Hemberger et al. ist eine Reaktion zu Benzocyclobuten bei Anregung mit 311.1 nm energetisch nicht zugänglich. Mittels quantenchemischer Rechnung konnte jedoch ein bislang unbekannter, energetisch zugänglicher Reaktionspfad zur Bildung von Benzocyclobuten unter simultaner Ringschlussreaktion und Wasserstofffragmentation identifiziert und charakterisiert werden. Die Kennwerte der Photodissoziationsreaktion des ortho-Xylyls konnten hierdurch zu <fT>(311.1nm) = 30 % und <fT>(250nm) = 16 % bestimmt werden. Wie bereits im Fall des para-Isomers liegt die Vermutung nahe, dass es sich um eine Dissoziation aus dem rovibronisch hoch-angeregten elektronischen Grundzustand handelt, welcher nicht vollständig vor der Fragmentation thermalisiert.
Im Rahmen der Experimente zum letzten der drei Xylyl-Isomere, dem meta-Xylyl-Radikal, konnte mit VMI eine Fragmentation nach m-Xylyl -> m-Xylylen + H als Hauptdissoziationpfad ausgeschlossen werden. Innerhalb der Experimente nach Anregung des D3-Niveaus um 310 nm konnten mit para-Xylylen und Benzocyclobuten zwei Reaktionsprodukte festgestellt werden, welche die erhaltene Translationsenergieverteilung erklären könnten, wobei die entsprechende maximale Überschussenergie einer Fragmentation zu para-Xylylen den Nullabfall der Verteilung geringfügig besser widerspiegelt. Die mittlere Fragmenttranslationsenergie liegt mit <fT>(p-Xylylen) = 29 % respektive <fT>(Bcb) = 25 % leicht unterhalb der entsprechenden Kennwerte der para- beziehungsweise ortho-Xylyl Experimente. Durch die nötige, der Dissoziation vorausgehende Isomerisierung scheint ein höherer Thermalisierungsgrad der Schwingungs- und Rotationsenergie innerhalb des elektronischen Grundzustands erreicht zu werden, aus welchem die geringen <fT>-Werte resultieren könnten. Der Effekt verminderter <fT>-Werte wurde in den Experimenten bei 250 nm nicht gefunden (<fT>(p-Xylylen) = 19 % respektive <fT>(Bcb) = 17 %). Vergleicht man an dieser Stelle die <ET>- anstelle der <fT>-Werte (<ET>(para) = 0.41 eV, <ET>(ortho) = 0.38 eV, <ET>(meta) = 0.41 eV), stellt man fest, dass <ET>(meta) = <ET>(para) gilt und somit ein weiteres Indiz dafür gefunden wurde, dass eine Umlagerung zu para-Xylyl mit anschließender Fragmentation zu para-Xylylen möglicherweise gegenüber jener zum ortho-Isomer mit nachfolgender Bcb-Bildung bevorzugt ist. Dies würde darüber hinaus im Einklang mit den Studien von Hemberger et al. stehen, in welchen beim thermischen Zerfall des meta-Xylyls para-Xylylen als alleiniges Fragmentationsprodukt gefunden wurde. Eine Betrachtung der Umlagerung mittels RRKM wies jedoch keinen bevorzugten Isomerisierungspfad aus. Schlussendlich lässt sich aufgrund der ermittelten Ratenkonstanten (kH(310nm) ≈ 10^8 s-1, kH(250nm) ≈ 4*10^7 s-1) sowie den <fT>-Werten vermuten, dass die Isomerisierung langsamer als die Dissoziation bei 310 nm verläuft, jedoch zumindest auf einer ähnlichen Zeitskala wie die entsprechende Dissoziation nach Anregung bei 250 nm. Eine zweifelsfreie Interpretation der meta-Xylyl Experimente gestaltet sich jedoch als schwierig.
Innerhalb der Studien zur Photodissoziation des Benzyl-Radikals konnten literaturbekannte Daten zur Fragmentation nach Anregung um 250 nm in guter Übereinstimmung reproduziert werden. Die experimentellen Daten zur Untersuchung der Photodissoziation nach Anregung des D3-Niveaus konnten jedoch nicht eindeutig interpretiert werden. Die literaturbekannte Lage des D3-Niveaus bei 305.3 nm konnte mittels REMPI-Spektroskopie reproduziert werden und anschließende 1H-Photofragmentspektren zeigten, dass eine Anregung des D3-Niveaus zur Bildung von Wasserstofffragmenten führt. Die beobachteten 1H-Fragmente zeigten jedoch eine deutlich zu hohe Überschussenergie für eine Einphotonenabsorption, sodass diese Mehrphotonenabsorptionen zugeordnet werden müssen. Es lässt sich vermuten, dass die Wasserstofffragmente aus einer Anregung eines „superexcited states” oberhalb des Ionisationspotentials, wahrscheinlich durch Zweiphotonenabsorption, stammen. Dieser „superexcited state” zeigt scheinbar keine (vollständige) Autoionisation und führt nachfolgend zumindest teilweise zur Fragmentation des Benzyl-Radikals. In der Folge liegt die Vermutung nahe, dass die Energien eines einzelnen 305 nm-Photons nicht zur Initiierung einer Photodissoziation des Benzyl-Radikals ausreichend ist oder aber, dass diese Photodissoziation zu langsam ist, um sie in einem VMI-Experiment zu beobachten. Potential für weitere Experimente zur Photodissoziation des Benzyl-Radikals nach Anregung des D3-Niveaus wird an dieser Stelle nicht gesehen.
Die Terahertz-Technologie erschließt permanent neue Forschungsbereiche und wird auch vermehrt im kommerziellen Bereich eingesetzt. Diese Entwicklung wird in eigenen Analysen dargestellt. Als Kernaspekte dieses Buchs werden technologische Verbesserungen für gepulste Terahertz-Systeme und der spektroskopische Einsatz für die Polymeranalytik vorgestellt. Einen besonderen Stellenwert nehmen dabei Untersuchungen an Polymermischungen im Schmelzezustand während der Prozessierung ein. Bemerkenswert ist hierbei das temperaturabhängige Verhalten von verschiedensten Polyamiden. Die Änderung der optischen und spektroskopischen Eigenschaften und die Einflussfaktoren werden tiefergehend betrachtet. Dabei werden verschiedene klassische und neuere Experimentalmethoden, Modellierungen und quantenchemische Simulationsmethoden eingesetzt, um insbesondere die intermolekularen Wechselwirkungen aufzuklären.
In this work the energy transfer and excitonic coupling in different chromophore arrangements were investigated. A difference in the coupling strength was introduced by varring the connecting unit and the spacial orientation relative to each other.
The synthesis of the 2,7-substituted pyrene compounds could be optimised and good yields of HAB 1 and HAB 2 and small amounts of HAB 2 could be achieved by cobalt-catalysed trimerisation or Diels Alder reaction in the end. Absorption and fluorescence spectra reveal strong intramolecular interactions between the pyrene molecules in the HAB 1. Excitation spectra recorded at the high and low energy fluorescence suggest the contribution of two components to the spectra. One being similar to the ground state aggregate and a second species similar to undisturbed pyrene. All these feature can be accounted to two different fluorescent states which are due to electronical decoupling in the excited state. Due to the strong intramolecular coupling already in the ground state of the molecule, no energy transfer could be studied, as the six pyrene units cannot be seen as separate spectroscopic entities between which energy could be transferred.
In the second part of this thesis dye conjugates of different size and alignment were synthesised to study the interaction of the transition-dipole moments. Therefore a systematic investigation of Sonogashira conditions was performed in order to obtain good yields of the desired compounds and keep dehalogenation at a minimum level. Nevertheless only the symmetrical triads could be purified as the asymmeric triads and pentades proved to decompose during purification.
The pyrene containing triads Py2B and Py2SQB show small interactions already in the ground state represented by red shifts of the spectra and a broadening of the bands. Nevertheless, these interactions are in the weak coupling regime and energy transfer between the constituents is possible. On the contrary in the TA spectra it is obvious that always the whole triad, at least to some extend is excited. To question if the excitation of the high energy state is deactivated by energy transfer or rather IC in a superchromophore could not be distinguished in the course of this work. At present additional time-dependent calculations of the dynamics are in progress to get a deeper understanding of the photophysical processes taking place in the triads.
The dye conjugates B2SQB-3 and (SQB)2B-4 can be assigned to the strong interaction range and hence are describable by exciton theory. The transition-dipole moments proved to be more than additive and increase for both compounds from absorption to fluorescence. This can be explained by an enhancement of the coupling in the relaxed excited state compared to the absorption into the Franck-Condon state due to a more steep potential energy surface in the excited state and hence smaller fluctuations.
In the last part of this thesis the influence of disrupting electronical communication by implementing a rigid non-conjugated bridge in a bichromophoric trans-squaraine system was tested. While the flexible linked squaraines show complex spectra due to different conformers the SQA2Anth compound is rigified and no rotation is possible. This change in flexibility is represented in the steady-state spectra where just one main absorption and fluorescence band is present due to a single allowed excitonic state. The system proves to own an excited state that is completely delocalised over the whole molecule.
In the context of quantum mechanical calculations, the properties of non-adiabatic coupling in a small system, the Shin-Metiu model, is investigated.
The transition from adiabatic to non-adiabatic dynamics is elucidated in modifying the electron-nuclear interaction. This allows the comparison of weakly correlated electron-nuclear motion with the case where the strong correlations determine the dynamics.
The studies of the model are extended to include spectroscopical transitions being present in two-dimensional and degenerate four-wave mixing spectroscopy.
Furthermore, the quantum and classical time-evolution of the coupled motion in the complete electron-nuclear phase space is compared for the two coupling cases.
Additionally, the numerically exact electron flux within the weak coupling case is compared to the Born-Oppenheimer treatment.
In the last part of the thesis, the model is extended to two dimensions.
The system then possesses potential energy surfaces which exhibit a typical 'Mexican hat'-like structure and a conical intersection in the adiabatic representation.
Thus, it is possible to map properties of the system onto a vibronic coupling (Jahn-Teller) hamiltonian. Exact wave-packet propagations as well as nuclear wave-packet dynamics in the adiabatic and diabatic representation are performed.
The invention of laser pulse shapers allowed for various quantum control experiments, where a chemical reaction is guided by specifically tailored laser pulses. However, despite of the prominent role of the liquid phase in chemistry, no successful attempt for controlling the selectivity of a bond-fission reaction has yet been reported in this state of matter. Promising candidates for such an experiment are C$_{\infty\mathrm{v}}$-symmetric trihalide anions with two different chemical bonds like $\ce{I2Cl-}$, because these molecules notionally offer the most simplest selectivity-control scenario of breaking either the one or the other bond and they are expected to dissociate under ultraviolet (UV) irradiation like it is known for the most-studied trihalide $\ce{I3-}$.
In order to investigate in this thesis the possibility that the dissociation reaction of such trihalides branches into two different photofragments, the ultrafast photodissociation dynamics of $\ce{I3-}$, $\ce{Br3-}$, $\ce{IBr2-}$ and $\ce{ICl2-}$ (point group D$_{\infty\mathrm{h}}$) as well as of $\ce{I2Br-}$ and $\ce{I2Cl-}$ (point group C$_{\infty\mathrm{v}}$) in dichloromethane solution were measured with broadband transient absorption spectroscopy in magic-angle configuration. The identification of the reaction pathway(s) relies on vibrational wavepacket oscillations, which survive the dissociation process and therefore carry not only informations about the reactant trihalides but also about the fragment dihalides.
These characteristic vibrational wavenumbers were extracted from the measured transient absorption spectra by globally fitting the population dynamics together with the wavepacket dynamics. Until recently, such a combined model function was not available in the well-established fitting tool Glotaran. This made it inevitable to develop a custom implementation of the underlying variable-projection fitting algorithm, for which the computer-algebra software Mathematica was chosen. Mathematica's sophisticated built-in functions allow not only for a high flexibility in constructing arbitrary model functions, but also offer the possibility to automatically calculate the derivative(s) of a model function. This allows the fitting procedure to use the exact Jacobian matrix instead of approximating it with the finite difference method.
Against the expectation, only one of the two thinkable photodissociation channels was found for each of the investigated C$_{\infty\mathrm{v}}$ trihalides. Since the photofragments recombine, their absorption signal as well as the reactant ground state bleach recover. This happens in a biexponential manner, which in the case of $\ce{I3-}$ was interpreted by Ruhman and coworkers with the direct formation of a neutral dihalogen fragment $\ce{I2}$ beside the negatively charged dihalide fragment $\ce{I2-}$. In this thesis, such a direct reaction channel was not found and instead the fast component of the biexponential decay is explained with vibrational excess energy mediating the recombination-preceding electron transfer process $\ce{I2- + I -> I2 + I-}$, while the slow component is attributed to cooled-down fragments.
In addition to the trihalide experiments, the possibility of a magic-angle configuration for polarization-shaping control experiments was theoretically investigated in this thesis by deriving magic-angle conditions for the third-order electric-dipole response signal of arbitrarily polarized laser pulses. Furthermore, the subtleties of anisotropy signals violating the well-known range of \numrange{-0.2}{0.4} were studied.
Energy Transfer Between Squaraine Polymer Sections: From helix to zig-zag and All the Way Back
(2015)
Joint experimental and theoretical study of the absorption spectra of squaraine polymers in solution provide evidence that two different conformations are present in solution: a helix and a zig-zag structure. This unique situation allows investigating ultrafast energy transfer processes between different structural segments within a single polymer chain in solution. The understanding of the underlying dynamics is of fundamental importance for the development of novel materials for light-harvesting and optoelectronic applications. We combine here femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy with time-resolved 2D electronic spectroscopy showing that ultrafast energy transfer within the squaraine polymer chains proceeds from initially excited helix segments to zig-zag segments or vice versa, depending on the solvent as well as on the excitation wavenumber. These observations contrast other conjugated polymers such as MEH-PPV where much slower intrachain energy transfer was reported. The reason for the very fast energy transfer in squaraine polymers is most likely a close matching of the density of states between donor and acceptor polymer segments because of very small reorganization energy in these cyanine-like chromophores.
The mechanism of excimer formation: an experimental and theoretical study on the pyrene dimer
(2017)
The understanding of excimer formation in organic materials is of fundamental importance, since excimers profoundly influence their functional performance in applications such as light-harvesting, photovoltaics or organic electronics. We present a joint experimental and theoretical study of the ultrafast dynamics of excimer formation in the pyrene dimer in a supersonic jet, which is the archetype of an excimer forming system. We perform simulations of the nonadiabatic photodynamics in the frame of TDDFT that reveal two distinct excimer formation pathways in the gas-phase dimer. The first pathway involves local excited state relaxation close to the initial Franck–Condon geometry that is characterized by a strong excitation of the stacking coordinate exhibiting damped oscillations with a period of 350 fs that persist for several picoseconds. The second excimer forming pathway involves large amplitude oscillations along the parallel shift coordinate with a period of ≈900 fs that after intramolecular vibrational energy redistribution leads to the formation of a perfectly stacked dimer. The electronic relaxation within the excitonic manifold is mediated by the presence of intermolecular conical intersections formed between fully delocalized excitonic states. Such conical intersections may generally arise in stacked π-conjugated aggregates due to the interplay between the long-range and short-range electronic coupling. The simulations are supported by picosecond photoionization experiments in a supersonic jet that provide a time-constant for the excimer formation of around 6–7 ps, in good agreement with theory. Finally, in order to explore how the crystal environment influences the excimer formation dynamics we perform large scale QM/MM nonadiabatic dynamics simulations on a pyrene crystal in the framework of the long-range corrected tight-binding TDDFT. In contrast to the isolated dimer, the excimer formation in the crystal follows a single reaction pathway in which the initially excited parallel slip motion is strongly damped by the interaction with the surrounding molecules leading to the slow excimer stabilization on a picosecond time scale.
The mechanism of excimer formation: an experimental and theoretical study on the pyrene dimer
(2017)
The understanding of excimer formation in organic materials is of fundamental importance, since excimers profoundly influence their functional performance in applications such as light-harvesting, photovoltaics or organic electronics. We present a joint experimental and theoretical study of the ultrafast dynamics of excimer formation in the pyrene dimer in a supersonic jet, which is the archetype of an excimer forming system. We perform simulations of the nonadiabatic photodynamics in the frame of TDDFT that reveal two distinct excimer formation pathways in the gas-phase dimer. The first pathway involves local excited state relaxation close to the initial Franck–Condon geometry that is characterized by a strong excitation of the stacking coordinate exhibiting damped oscillations with a period of 350 fs that persist for several picoseconds. The second excimer forming pathway involves large amplitude oscillations along the parallel shift coordinate with a period of ≈900 fs that after intramolecular vibrational energy redistribution leads to the formation of a perfectly stacked dimer. The electronic relaxation within the excitonic manifold is mediated by the presence of intermolecular conical intersections formed between fully delocalized excitonic states. Such conical intersections may generally arise in stacked π-conjugated aggregates due to the interplay between the long-range and short-range electronic coupling. The simulations are supported by picosecond photoionization experiments in a supersonic jet that provide a time-constant for the excimer formation of around 6–7 ps, in good agreement with theory. Finally, in order to explore how the crystal environment influences the excimer formation dynamics we perform large scale QM/MM nonadiabatic dynamics simulations on a pyrene crystal in the framework of the long-range corrected tight-binding TDDFT. In contrast to the isolated dimer, the excimer formation in the crystal follows a single reaction pathway in which the initially excited parallel slip motion is strongly damped by the interaction with the surrounding molecules leading to the slow excimer stabilization on a picosecond time scale.
Most proteins work in aqueous solution and the interaction with water strongly affects their structure and function. However, experimentally the motion of a specific single water molecule is difficult to trace by conventional methods, because they average over the heterogeneous solvation structure of bulk water surrounding the protein. Here, we provide a detailed atomistic picture of the water rearrangement dynamics around the –CONH– peptide linkage in the two model systems formanilide and acetanilide, which simply differ by the presence of a methyl group at the peptide linkage. The combination of picosecond pump–probe time-resolved infrared spectroscopy and molecular dynamics simulations demonstrates that the solvation dynamics at the molecular level is strongly influenced by this small structural difference. The effective timescales for solvent migration triggered by ionization are mainly controlled by the efficiency of the kinetic energy redistribution rather than the shape of the potential energy surface. This approach provides a fundamental understanding of protein hydration and may help to design functional molecules in solution with tailored properties.
Most proteins work in aqueous solution and the interaction with water strongly affects their structure and function. However, experimentally the motion of a specific single water molecule is difficult to trace by conventional methods, because they average over the heterogeneous solvation structure of bulk water surrounding the protein. Here, we provide a detailed atomistic picture of the water rearrangement dynamics around the –CONH– peptide linkage in the two model systems formanilide and acetanilide, which simply differ by the presence of a methyl group at the peptide linkage. The combination of picosecond pump–probe time-resolved infrared spectroscopy and molecular dynamics simulations demonstrates that the solvation dynamics at the molecular level is strongly influenced by this small structural difference. The effective timescales for solvent migration triggered by ionization are mainly controlled by the efficiency of the kinetic energy redistribution rather than the shape of the potential energy surface. This approach provides a fundamental understanding of protein hydration and may help to design functional molecules in solution with tailored properties.
We present a joint experimental and computational study of the nonradiative deactivation of the benzyl radical, C\(_7\)H\(_7\) after UV excitation. Femtosecond time-resolved photoelectron imaging was applied to investigate the photodynamics of the radical. The experiments were accompanied by excited state dynamics simulations using surface hopping. Benzyl has been excited at 265 nm into the D-band (\(\pi\pi^*\)) and the dynamics was probed using probe wavelengths of 398 nm or 798 nm. With 398 nm probe a single time constant of around 70-80 fs was observed. When the dynamics was probed at 798 nm, a second time constant \(\tau_2\)=1.5 ps was visible. It is assigned to further non-radiative deactivation to the lower-lying D\(_1\)/D\(_2\) states.
The design of ordered arrays of metal nanoclusters such as for example 2D cluster organic frameworks might open a new route towards the development of materials with tailored optical properties. Such systems could serve as plasmonically enhanced light-harvesting materials, sensors or catalysts. We present here a theoretical approach for the simulation of the optical properties of ordered arrays of metal clusters that is based on the ab initio parametrized Frenkel exciton model. We demonstrate that small atomically precise silver clusters can be assembled in one- and two-dimensional arrays on suitably designed porphyrin templates exhibiting remarkable optical properties. By employing explicit TDDFT calculations on smaller homologs, we show that the intrinsic optical properties of metal clusters are largely preserved but undergo J- and H-type excitonic coupling that results in controllable splitting of their excited states.
Furthermore, ab initio parameterized Frenkel exciton model calculations allow us to predict an energetic splitting of up to 0.77 eV in extended two-dimensional square arrays and 0.79 eV in tilted square aggregates containing up to 25 cluster-porphyrin subunits.
We present a theoretical approach for the simulation of the electric field and exciton propagation in ordered arrays constructed of molecular-sized noble metal clusters bound to organic polymer templates. In order to describe the electronic coupling between individual constituents of the nanostructure we use the ab initio parameterized transition charge method which is more accurate than the usual dipole-dipole coupling. The electronic population dynamics in the nanostructure under an external laser pulse excitation is simulated by numerical integration of the time-dependent Schrodinger equation employing the fully coupled Hamiltonian. The solution of the TDSE gives rise to time-dependent partial point charges for each subunit of the nanostructure, and the spatio-temporal electric field distribution is evaluated by means of classical electrodynamics methods. The time-dependent partial charges are determined based on the stationary partial and transition charges obtained in the framework of the TDDFT. In order to treat large plasmonic nanostructures constructed of many constituents, the approximate self-consistent iterative approach presented in (Lisinetskaya and Mitric in Phys Rev B 89:035433, 2014) is modified to include the transition-charge-based interaction. The developed methods are used to study the optical response and exciton dynamics of Ag-3(+) and porphyrin-Ag-4 dimers. Subsequently, the spatio-temporal electric field distribution in a ring constructed of ten porphyrin-Ag-4 subunits under the action of circularly polarized laser pulse is simulated. The presented methodology provides a theoretical basis for the investigation of coupled light-exciton propagation in nanoarchitectures built from molecular size metal nanoclusters in which quantum confinement effects are important.
We present a joint theoretical and experimental study of excited state dynamics in pure and hydrated anionic gold clusters Au\(^-_3\)[H\(_2\)O]\(_n\) (n = 0-2). We employ mixed quantum-classical dynamics combined with femtosecond time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy in order to investigate the influence of hydration on excited state lifetimes and photo-dissociation dynamics. A gradual decrease of the excited state lifetime with the number of adsorbed water molecules as well as gold cluster fragmentation quenching by two or more water molecules are observed both in experiment and in simulations. Non-radiative relaxation and dissociation in excited states are found to be responsible for the excited state population depletion. Time constants of these two processes strongly depend on the number of water molecules leading to the possibility to modulate excited state dynamics and fragmentation of the anionic cluster by adsorption of water molecules.
We have investigated the photodynamics of \(\beta\)-D-glucose employing our field-induced surface hopping method (FISH), which allows us to simulate the coupled electron-nuclear dynamics, including explicitly nonadiabatic effects and light-induced excitation. Our results reveal that from the initially populated S\(_{1}\) and S\(_{2}\) states, glucose returns nonradiatively to the ground state within about 200 fs. This takes place mainly via conical intersections (CIs) whose geometries
in most cases involve the elongation of a single O-H bond, while in some instances ring-opening due to dissociation of a C-O bond is observed. Experimentally, excitation to a distinct excited electronic state is improbable due to the presence of a dense manifold of states bearing similar oscillator strengths. Our FISH simulations explicitly including a UV laser pulse of 6.43 eV photon energy reveals that after initial excitation the population is almost equally spread over several close-lying electronic states. This is followed by a fast nonradiative decay on the time scale of 100-200 fs, with the final return to the ground state proceeding via the S\(_{1}\) state through the same types of CIs as observed in the field-free simulations.
We introduce a general theoretical approach for the simulation of photochemical dynamics under the influence of circularly polarized light to explore the possibility of generating enantiomeric enrichment through polarized-light-selective photochemistry. The method is applied to the simulation of the photolysis of alanine, a prototype chiral amino acid. We show that a systematic enantiomeric enrichment can be obtained depending on the helicity of the circularly polarized light that induces the excited-state photochemistry of alanine. By analyzing the patterns of the photoinduced fragmentation of alanine we find an inducible enantiomeric enrichment up to 1.7%, which is also in good correspondence to the experimental findings. Our method is generally applicable to complex systems and might serve to systematically explore the photochemical origin of homochirality.
Coherent Multidimensional Spectroscopy in Molecular Beams and Liquids Using Incoherent Observables
(2018)
The aim of the present work was to implement an experimental approach that enables coherent two-dimensional (2D) electronic spectroscopy of samples in various states of matter. For samples in the liquid phase, a setup was realized that utilizes the sample fluorescence for the acquisition of 2D spectra. Whereas the liquid-phase approach has been established before, coherent 2D spectroscopy on gaseous samples in a molecular beam as developed in this work is in fact a new method. It employs for the first time cations in a time-of-flight mass spectrometer for signal detection and was used to obtain the first ion-selective 2D spectra of a molecular-beam sample. Additionally, a new acquisition concept was developed in this thesis that significantly decreases measurement times in 2D spectroscopy using optimized sparse sampling and a compressed-sensing reconstruction algorithm.
Characteristic for the variant of 2D spectroscopy presented in this work is the usage of a phase-coherent sequence of four laser pulses in a fully collinear geometry for sample excitation. The pulse sequence was generated by a custom-designed pulse shaper that is capable of rapid scanning by changing the pulse parameters such as time delays and phases with the repetition rate of the laser. The sample's response was detected by monitoring incoherent observables that arise from the final-state population, for instance fluorescence or cations. Phase cycling, i.e., signal acquisition with different combinations of the relative phases of the excitation pulses, was applied to extract nonlinear signal contributions from the full signal during data analysis.
Liquid-phase 2D fluorescence spectroscopy was established with the laser dye cresyl violet as a sample molecule, confirming coherent oscillations previously observed in literature that are originating from vibronic coherences in specific regions of the 2D spectrum.
The data set of this experiment was used subsequently to introduce optimized sparse sampling in 2D spectroscopy. An optimization algorithm was implemented in order to find the best sampling pattern while taking only one quarter of the regular time-domain sampling points, thereby reducing the acquisition time by a factor of four. Signal recovery was based on a new and compact representation of 2D spectra using the von Neumann basis, which required about six times less coefficients than the Fourier basis to retain the relevant information. Successful reconstruction was shown by recovering the coherent oscillations in cresyl violet from a reduced data set.
Finally, molecular-beam coherent 2D spectroscopy was introduced with an investigation of ionization pathways in highly-excited nitrogen dioxide, revealing transitions to discrete auto-ionizing states as the dominant contribution to the ion signal. Furthermore, the advantage of the time-of-flight approach to obtain reactant and product 2D spectra simultaneously enabled the observation of distinct differences in the multiphoton-ionization response functions of the nitrogen dioxide cation and the nitrogen oxide ionic fragment.
The developed experimental techniques of this work will facilitate fast acquisition of 2D spectra for samples in various states of matter and permit reliable direct comparison of results. Therefore, they pave the way to study the properties of quantum coherences during photophysical processes or photochemical reactions in different environments.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, ein Schichtsystem auf Basis des Sol-Gel-Prozesses zu entwickeln, um Lighttrapping in Si-Dünnschichtsolarzellen zu erzeugen. Die Grundlage dieses Schichtsystems bilden SiO2-Partikel, die über den Stöber-Prozess hergestellt werden. Es zeigte sich, dass sich die Rauheit und der Haze der Schichten über die Partikelgröße und Schichtdicke einstellen lassen.
Um die mechanische Stabilität der reinen Stöber-Schichten zu verbessern, kamen verschiedene Binder zum Einsatz. Beste Ergebnisse zeigten Binder basierend auf löslichen Vorstufenpulvern, da diese dem Stöber-Sol beigemischt werden konnten und so Binder und Partikel gleichzeitig aufgebracht werden konnten.
Auf diese Weise entstehen mechanisch stabile, lichtstreuende Schichten. Zum Einsatz kam zunächst ein TiO2-Binder. Durch eine anschließende Glättung der Stöber-TiO2-Streuschichten mit SiO2 entsteht eine defektfreie, aber dennoch raue Oberfläche. Zusätzlich wird ein beträchtlicher Teil des Lichts in große Winkel gestreut.
Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass sich auf den SiO2-geglätteten Stöber-TiO2-Streuschichten ZnO:Al deponieren lässt, wobei die elektrischen Eigenschaften von der Dicke der Glättung abhängen. Auch die elektrischen Eigenschaften der Si-Dünnschichtsolarzellen hängen von der Glättung bzw. der Dicke der Glättung ab. Dies gilt insbesondere für die von der Materialqualität abhängigen Parameter Füllfaktor FF und offen Klemmenspannung VOC. Insgesamt fallen die Parameter jedoch noch gegenüber Referenzzellen auf geätztem Frontkontakt zurück. Vor allem aber wurde die hohe Zellreflexion aufgrund der Glas-TiO2-Grenzfläche als primäres Problem identifiziert. Dennoch konnte bei einer Glättungsdicke von 200 nm sehr gutes Lighttrapping beobachtet werden. Verantwortlich hierfür ist sehr wahrscheinlich die Großwinkelstreuung der Stöber-TiO2-Streuschichten.
Um die Zellreflexion zu verringern, wurde der Brechungsindex des Binders und der Glättungsschichten an den Stack aus Substrat, Streuschicht und ZnO:Al-Schicht angepasst. Idee war es, durch Einbringen eines Al2O3-Vorstufenpulvers eine niedrigbrechende Komponente bereitzustellen, um durch Mischung von Al2O3- und TiO2-Vorstufenpulver freie Hand über den Brechungsindex des Binders und der Glättung zu erhalten.
Da sich das Volumenverhältnis von SiO2-Partikeln zu Binder bei verschiedenen Al2O3-TiO2-Verhältnissen nur schwer bestimmen lässt, wurde lediglich ein reiner Al2O3-Binder in den Streuschichten eingesetzt. Die Einstellung des Brechungsindex beschränkte sich allein auf die Glättungsschichten. Um Stöber-Al2O3-Streuschichten mit hoher Rauigkeit und geringen Defekten zu erzielen, muss das Binder-zu-Partikel-Verhältnis angepasst werden. Beste Ergebnisse ergaben sich bei einem Al2O3-Gehalt von 2% im Sol. Aufgrund der hohen Rauigkeit besitzen die Streuschichten einen hohen Haze und wegen des geringen Brechungsunterschied zwischen Glas und Binder eine hohe Transmission. Die Glättung der Streuschichten im Al2O3-TiO2-System ist nur mit Hilfe einer zusätzlichen SiO2-Glättungsschicht und einer reduzierten Dicke auf 50 nm möglich. Auf den reinen defektreichen Streuschichten tendieren die Al2O3-TiO2-Schichten selbst zu Rissbildung.
Zur Untersuchung der ZnO:Al-Deposition wurde eine Glättungsdicke von 200 nm gewählt. Die erwies sich als zu gering. Die aufgebrachten ZnO:Al-Schichten wiesen größere Poren und kleinere Oberflächendefekte auf. Die Anpassung des Brechungsindex der Glättungsschichten an die ZnO:Al-Schicht erwies sich nicht als vorteilhaft. Die reine Al2O3-Glättung zeigt auch nach der ZnO:Al-Deposition die höchste Transmission. Die Winkelverteilung des Streulichts der Stöber-Al2O3-Streuschichten ist gegenüber den Stöber-TiO2-Streuschichten zu kleineren Winkeln verschoben. Dennoch wird ein größerer Anteil des Lichts in große Winkel gestreut, als es bei der geätzten ZnO:Al-Referenz der Fall ist.
Trotz der Defekte in den ZnO:Al-Schichten konnten auf den Stöber-Al2O3-Streuschichten funktionierende Tandemzellen hergestellt werden. Der Füllfaktor und die offene Klemmenspannung fallen nur geringfügig hinter die der Referenzzelle zurück. In der Kurzschlussstromdichte machen sich die verringerte Zellreflexion und das sehr gute Lighttrapping bemerkbar, so dass das Niveau der Referenz erreicht werden konnte. Zu beachten ist allerdings, dass gerade im langwelligen Lighttrapping-Spektralbereich die gleiche EQE erreicht wurde, trotz immer noch leicht erhöhter Zellreflexion.
Die letzte Versuchsreihe konnte zeigen, dass die entwickelten Schichten sich sehr gut zur Erzeugung von Lighttrapping in Si-Dünnschichtsolarzellen eignen.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde erfolgreich eine neue Gasphasen-Apparatur für
Photoelektronen-Imaging-Experimente simuliert, aufgebaut und in Verbindung mit einem ps-Lasersystem in Betrieb genommen.
Neben dem Aufbau der Apparatur stand die Aufklärung der Dynamik angeregter Zustände von aromatischen Heterocyclen und Pyrenen im Fokus dieser Arbeit. Die untersuchten Moleküle wurden durch Resonanzverstärkte Mehrphotonenionisation in einem Molekularstrahlexperiment sowohl zeit-, als auch frequenzaufgelöst untersucht.
Theory predicts peculiar features for excited-state dynamics in one dimension (1D) that are difficult to be observed experimentally. Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) are an excellent approximation to 1D quantum confinement, due to their very high aspect ratio and low density of defects. Here we use ultrafast optical spectroscopy to probe photogenerated charge-carriers in (6,5) semiconducting SWNTs. We identify the transient energy shift of the highly polarizable S\(_{33}\) transition as a sensitive fingerprint of charge-carriers in SWNTs. By measuring the coherent phonon amplitude profile we obtain a precise estimate of the Stark-shift and discuss the binding energy of the S\(_{33}\) excitonic transition. From this, we infer that charge-carriers are formed instantaneously (<50 fs) even upon pumping the first exciton, S\(_{11}\). The decay of the photogenerated charge-carrier population is well described by a model for geminate recombination in 1D.
In the first part of his work, the causes for the sudden degradation of useable capacity of lithium-ion cells have been studied by means of complementary methods such as computed tomography, Post-Mortem studies and electrochemical analyses. The results obtained point unanimously to heterogeneous aging as a key-factor for the sudden degradation of cell capacity, which in turn is triggered by differences in local compression.
At high states of health, the capacity fade rate is moderate but some areas of the graphite electrode degrade faster than others. Still, the localized changes are hardly noticeable on cell level due to averaging effects. Lithium plating occurs first in unevenly compressed areas, creating patterns visible to the human eye. As lithium plating leads to rapid consumption of active lithium, a sudden drop in capacity is observed on cell level. Lithium plating appears to spread out from the initial areas over the whole graphite electrode, quickly consuming the remaining useful lithium and active graphite. It can be hypothesized that a self-amplifying circle of reciprocal acceleration of local lithium loss and material loss causes rapid local degradation.
Battery cell designers can improve cycle life by homogeneous pressure distribution in the cell and using negative active materials that are resilient to elevated discharge potentials such as improved carbons or lithium titanate. Also, a sufficiently oversized negative electrode and suitable electrolyte additives can help to avoid lithium plating. When packs are designed, care must be taken not to exert local pressure on parts of cells and to avoid both very high and low states of charge.
In the second part of this dissertation the resilience of cylindrical and pouchbag cells to shocks and different vibrations was investigated. Stresses inflicted by vibration and shock tests according to the widely recognized UN38.3 transport test were compared to a long-time test that exposed cells to a 186 days long ordeal of sine sweep vibrations with a profile based on real-world applications. All cells passed visual and electric inspection performed by TU München after the vibration tests. Only cylindrical cells subjected to long-term vibrations in axial direction showed an increase in impedance and a loss of capacity that could be recuperated in part.
The detailed analyses presented in this thesis gave more details on the damages inflicted by vibrations and shocks and revealed drastic damages in some cases. In cylindrical cells, only movement in axial direction caused damage. Long term vibrations were found to be especially detrimental.
No damage whatsoever could be detected for pouch cells, regardless of the test protocol and the direction of movement. The extreme resilience of pouchbag cells shows that the electrode stack of lithium-ion cells is resistant to vibrations, and that damages are caused by design imperfections that can be improved at low cost.
The findings of this work, and the general state of research show that it is most crucial to control the lithiation and thus potential of the graphite electrode.
In the last part of this work, a new, direct method for charge estimation based on changing transmission is presented. A correlation between transmission of short ultrasonic pulses and state of charge is found. This new technology allows direct measurement of the state of charge. The method is demonstrated for batteries with different positive active materials, showing its versatility. As the observed changes can be traced to the lithiation of graphite, it can be determined without a reference electrode. Already at this early stage of development, the found correlations allow estimation of state of charge. The present hysteresis in the signal height of the slow wave, which is unneglectable especially during discharging at higher currents, will be subject to further investigation.
The observed effects can be explained by effects on different length scales. Biot’s theory explains the second wave’s slowness based on the active material particles size in the range of 0.01 mm and electrolyte-filled pores. Lithiation of graphite changes the porosity of the electrode and thereby the velocity and wavelength of the impulse. When the wavelength approaches the length scale of the layers, 0.1 mm, scattering effects dampen the transmitted signal. Finally, the wavelength of the pulse should be shorter than the transducers diameter to obtain a homogeneous wave front.
To conclude, the new method allows the control of each individual cell in a pack independent from the electrical connections of the cells.
As the method shows great promise, further studies regarding factors such as long-term behavior, temperature and current rates should be conducted. In this thesis hysteresis was observed and a deeper understanding of the reasons behind it may allow further improvements of measurement precision.
In this thesis the excited-state dynamics of radicals and biradicals were characterized with femtosecond pump-probe spectroscopy.
These open-shell molecules play important roles as combustion intermediates, in the formation of soot and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, in atmospheric chemistry and in the formation of complex molecules in the interstellar medium and galactic clouds. In these processes molecules frequently occur in some excited state, excited either by thermal energy or radiation. Knowledge of the reactivity and dynamics of these excited states completes our understanding of these complex processes.
These highly reactive molecules were produced via pyrolysis from suitable precursors and examined in a molecular beam under collision-free conditions. A first laser now excites the molecule, and a second laser ionizes it. Time-of-flight mass spectrometry allowed a first identification of the molecule, photoelectron spectroscopy a complete characterization of the molecule - under the condition that the mass spectrum was dominated by only one mass. The photoelectron spectrum was obtained via velocity-map imaging, providing an insight in the electronic states involved. Ion velocity map imaging allowed separation of signal from direct ionization of the radical in the molecular beam and dissociative photoionization of the precursor. During this thesis a modified pBasex algorithm was developed and implemented in python, providing an image inversion tool without interpolation of data points. Especially for noisy photoelectron images this new algorithm delivers better results.
Some highlighted results:
• The 2-methylallyl radical was excited in the ππ*-state with different internal energies using three different pump wavelengths (240.6 , 238.0 and 236.0 nm). Ionized with 800 nm multi-photon probe, the photoelectron spectra shows a s-Rydberg fingerprint spectrum, a highly positive photoelectron anisotropy of 1.5 and a bi-exponential decay ( τ1= 141\pm43 fs, τ2= 4.0\pm0.2 ps for 240.6 nm pump), where the second time-constant shortens for lower wavelengths. Field-induced surface hopping dynamics calculations confirm that the initially excited ππ*-state relaxes very fast to an s-Rydberg state (first experimentally observed time-constant), and then more slowly to the first excited state/ground state (second time-constant). With higher excitation energies the conical intersection between the s-Rydberg-state and the first excited state is reached faster, resulting in shorter life-times.
• The benzyl radical was excited yith 265 nm and probed with two wavelengths, 798 nm and 398 nm. Probed with 798 nm it shows a bi-exponential decay (\tau_{1}=84\pm5 fs, \tau_{2}=1.55\pm0.12 ps), whereas with 398 nm probe only the first time-constant is observed (\tau_{1}=89\pm5 fs). The photoelectron spectra with 798 nm probe is comparable to the spectrum with 398 nm probe during the first 60 fs, at longer times an additional band appears. This band is due to a [1+3']-process, whereas with 398 nm only signal from a [1+1']-process can be observed. Non-adiabatic dynamic on the fly calculations show that the initially excited, nearly degenerate ππ/p-Rydberg-states relax very fast (first time-constant) to an s-Rydberg state. This s-Rydberg state can no longer be ionized with 398 nm, but with 798 nm ionization via intermediate resonances is still possible. The s-Rydberg state then decays to the first excited state (second time-constant), which is long-lived.
• Para-xylylene, excited with 266 nm into the S2-state and probed with 800 nm, shows a bi-exponential decay (\tau_{1}=38\pm7 fs, \tau_{2}=407\pm9 fs). The initially excited S2-state decays quickly to S1-state, which shows dissociative photoionization. The population of the S1-state is directly visible in the masses of the dissociative photoionization products, benzene and the para-xylylene -H.
• Ortho-benzyne, produced via pyrolysis from benzocyclobutendione, was excited with 266 nm in the S2 state and probed with 800 nm. In its time-resolved mass spectra the dynamic of the ortho-benzyne signal was superposed with the dynamics from dissociative photoionization of the precursor and of the ortho-benzyne-dimer. With time-resolved ion imaging gated on the ortho-benzyne these processes could be seperated, showing that the S2-state of ortho-benzyne relaxes within 50 fs to the S1-state.
Polypeptoids are an old but recently rediscovered polymer class with interesting synthetic, physico-chemical and biological characteristics. Here, we introduce new aromatic monomers, N-benzyl glycine N-carboxyanhydride and N-phenethyl glycine N-carboxyanhydride and their block copolymers with the hydrophilic polysarcosine. We compare their self-assembly in water and aqueous buffer with the self-assembly of amphiphilic block copolypeptoids with aliphatic side chains. The aggregates in water were investigated by dynamic light scattering and electron microscopy. We found a variety of morphologies, which were influenced by the polymer structure as well as by the preparation method. Overall, we found polymersomes, worm-like micelles and oligo-lamellar morphologies as well as some less defined aggregates of interconnected worms and vesicles. Such, this contribution may serve as a starting point for a more detailed investigation of the self-assembly behavior of the rich class of polypeptoids and for a better understanding between the differences in the aggregation behavior of non-uniform polypeptoids and uniform peptoids.
Diese Arbeit befasst sich mit zeitaufgelösten Prozessen in molekularen Systemen. Dabei wurde sowohl die Wellenpaketdynamik nach Photoanregung betrachtet als auch spektrale Eigenschaften mittels Absorptions- und zweidimensionaler Spektroskopie untersucht.
Zunächst widmet sich die Arbeit der Wellenpaket- und Populationsdynamik in zwei diabatischen, gekoppelten Zuständen. Nach impulsiver Anregung aus dem zu Beginn besetzten Zustand treten in der Populationsdynamik zwei deutlich verschiedene Oszillationen auf. Der langsamer variierende Populationstransfer besitzt die Periodendauer der Vibrationsbewegung und ist auf einen Wechsel der Zustände beim Durchlaufen des Wellenpakets durch die Kreuzungsregion der diabatischen Potentiale zurückzuführen. Die ultraschnelle Komponente mit einer Periodendauer von etwa 4 fs lässt sich als eine Art Rabi-Oszillation beschreiben, die durch die (zeitunabhängige) Kopplung hervorgerufen wird. Sie wurde mit Hilfe von analytischen Berechnungen ausführlich charakterisiert. Damit dieser Prozess auftreten kann müssen mehrere Bedingungen erfüllt werden: Das Wellenpaket muss über die Dauer der Oszillationen annähernd örtlich lokalisiert bleiben; dies ist an den Umkehrpunkten der Wellenpaketsbewegung der Fall. Die Amplitude der Oszillationen in den Populationen ist proportional zum Verhältnis der Kopplung zum Energieabstand der Zustände. Deshalb muss an den stationären Stellen die Kopplung groß im Vergleich zum Energieabstand sein. Die Amplitude der Oszillationen hängt außerdem von dem Populationsverhältnis und den Phasen der Komponenten des Wellenpakets in den beiden Zuständen ab. Die ultraschnellen Oszillationen bleiben auch in mehrdimensionalen Systemen mit unterschiedlichen Vibrationsfrequenzen je Freiheitsgrad erhalten.
Das gleiche Modell wurde benutzt, um Ladungstransferprozesse mittels linearer und 2D-Spektroskopie zu untersuchen. Eine Kopplung an die Umgebung wurde, aufbauend auf einer Quanten-Master-Gleichung in Markov-Näherung, wellenfunktionsbasiert mittels eines Quantum-Jump-Algorithmus mit expliziter Dephasierung beschrieben. Dabei findet mit vorher definierten Wahrscheinlichkeiten zu jedem Zeitschritt einer von drei stochastischen Prozessen statt. Neben kohärenter Propagation können Sprünge in einen anderen Eigenzustand des Systems und Dephasierungen auftreten. Zwei Dissipationsparameter spielen dabei eine Rolle. Dies ist zum einen die Stärke der System-Bad-Kopplung, welche die Gesamtrate der Energierelaxation beschreibt. Weiterhin beeinflusst die Dephasierungskonstante den Verlust kohärenter Phasen ohne Energieänderung. Fallenzustände wurden identifiziert, die durch sehr geringe Sprungraten in niedrigere Zustände charakterisiert sind. Die Langlebigkeit kann durch die Form der Eigenfunktionen erklärt werden, die eine deutlich andere Wahrscheinlichkeitsverteilung als die der Nicht-Fallenzustände besitzen. Dadurch werden die in die Sprungraten eingehenden Matrixelemente klein. Das Absorptionsspektrum zeigt Peaks an der Stelle der Fallenzustände, da nur die Eigenfunktionen der Fallenzustände große Franck-Condon-Faktoren mit der Anfangswellenfunktion besitzen. Verschiedene Kombinationen der Dissipationsparameter führen zu Änderungen der relativen Peakintensitäten und der Peakbreiten.
Die 2D-Spektren des Ladungstransfersystems werden störungstheoretisch über die Polarisation dritter Ordnung berechnet. Sie zeigen viele eng nebeneinander liegende Peaks in einer schachbrettmusterförmigen Anordnung, die sich auf Übergänge unter Mitwirkung der Fallenzustände zurückführen lassen. Höhere System-Bad-Kopplungen führen aufgrund der effizienten Energiedissipation zu einer Verschiebung zu kleineren Energien. Peaks, die mit schneller zerfallenden Fallenzuständen korrespondieren, bleichen schneller aus. Höhere Dephasierungskonstanten resultieren in verbreiterten Peaks. Um den Einfluss der Dissipation genauer zu charakterisieren, wurden gefilterte 2D-Spektren betrachtet. Dazu wurden Ausschnitte der Polarisation dritter Ordnung zu verschiedenen Zeiten fouriertransformiert. Längere Zeiten führen zu einer effektiveren Energierelaxation entlang der entsprechenden Zeitvariablen. Die Entvölkerung der höher liegenden Zustände lässt sich somit zeit- und energieaufgelöst betrachten. Weiterhin wurde gezeigt, dass sich der Zerfall eines einzelnen Peaks mit dem Populationsabfall des damit korrespondierenden Eigenzustandes in Einklang bringen lässt, obwohl die Zuordnung der Peaks im 2D-Spektrum zu Übergängen zwischen definierten Eigenzuständen nicht eindeutig ist.
Mit dem benutzten eindimensionalen Modell können auch Ladungstransferprozesse in organischen gemischtvalenten Verbindungen beschrieben werden. Es wurde die Frage untersucht, welche Prozesse nach einem optisch induzierten Energietransfer in solchen Systemen ablaufen. Experimentelle Daten (aufgenommen im Arbeitskreis von Prof. Lambert) deuten auf eine schnelle interne Konversion (IC) gefolgt von Thermalisierung hin. Um dies theoretisch zu überprüfen, wurden Absorptionsspektren bei verschiedenen Temperaturen berechnet und mit den gemessenen transienten Spektren verglichen. Es findet sich, abhängig von der Stärke der elektronischen Kopplung, eine sehr gute bis gute Übereinstimmung, was die Annahme eines schnellen ICs stützt.
Im letzten Teil der Arbeit wurden vibronische 2D-Spektren von molekularen Aggregaten betrachtet. Dazu wurde die zeitabhängige Schrödingergleichung für ein Monomer-, Dimer- und Trimersystem mit der Multi-Configuration Time-Dependent Hartree-Methode gelöst und die Polarisation nicht-störungstheoretisch berechnet. Der Hamiltonoperator des Trimers umfasst hierbei sieben gekoppelte elektronische Zustände und drei bzw. sechs Vibrationsfreiheitsgrade. Der betrachtete Photonenecho-Beitrag der Polarisation wurde mittels phasencodierter Laserpulse extrahiert. Die resultierenden Spektren sind geometrieabhängig, ein Winkel zwischen den Übergangsdipolmomenten der Monomere von 0° (180°) resultiert in einem H-Aggregat (J-Aggregat). Die Lage und Intensität der Peaks im rein elektronischen Trimer wurde analytisch erläutert. Die Spektren unter Einbeziehung der Vibration zeigen eine ausgeprägte vibronische Struktur. Es wurde gezeigt, wie die Spektren für höhere Aggregationsgrade durch die höhere Dichte an vibronischen Zuständen komplexer werden. Im J-Aggregat ist mit zunehmender Aggregation eine stärkere Rotverschiebung zu sehen. Das Spektrum des H-Aggregats zeigt eine im Vergleich zum J-Aggregat kompliziertere Struktur. Die Verwendung zweier Vibrationsfreiheitsgrade je Monomer führt zu Spektren mit überlappenden Peaks und einer zusätzlichen vibronischen Progression. Der Vergleich von Spektren verschiedener Mischungen von Monomer, Dimer und Trimer, entsprechend einem von Temperatur und Konzentration abhängigen Aggregationsgrad, zeigt den Einfluss dieser experimentellen Faktoren. Schließlich wurden mögliche Ansätze aufgezeigt, anhand der Spektren auf den Aggregationsgrad zu schließen.
Time-resolved spectroscopy allows for analyzing light-induced energy conversion and
chromophore–chromophore interactions in molecular systems, which is a prerequisite in
the design of new materials and for improving the efficiency of opto-electronic devices.
To elucidate photo-induced dynamics of complex molecular systems, transient absorption
(TA) and coherent two-dimensional (2D) spectroscopy were employed and combined
with additional experimental techniques, theoretical approaches, and simulation models
in this work.
A systematic series of merocyanines, synthetically varied in the number of chromophores
and subsitution pattern, attached to a benzene unit was investigated in cooperation with
the group of Prof. Dr. Frank Würthner at the University of Würzburg. The global analysis
of several TA experiments, and additional coherent 2D spectroscopy experiments, provided
the basis to elaborate a relaxation scheme which was applicable for all merocyanine
systems under investigation. This relaxation scheme is based on a double minimum on the
excited-state potential energy surface. One of these minima is assigned to an intramolecular
charge-transfer state which is stabilized in the bis- and tris-chromophoric dyes by
chromphore–chromophore interactions, resulting in an increase in excited-state lifetime.
Electro-optical absorption and density functional theory (DFT) calculations revealed a
preferential chromophore orientation which compensates most of the dipole moment of
the individual chromophores. Based on this structural assignment the conformationdependent
exciton energy splitting was calculated. The linear absorption spectra of the
multi-chromophoric merocyanines could be described by a combination of monomeric and
excitonic spectra.
Subsequently, a structurally complex polymeric squaraine dye was studied in collaboration
with the research groups of Prof. Dr. Christoph Lambert and Prof. Dr. Roland Mitric
at the University of Würzburg. This polymer consists of a superposition of zigzag and
helix structures depending on the solvent. High-level DFT calculations confirmed the previous
assignment that zigzag and helix structures can be treated as J- and H-aggregates,
respectively. TA experiments revealed that in dependence on the solvent as well as the
excitation energy, ultrafast energy transfer within the squaraine polymer proceeds from
initially excited helix segments to zigzag segments or vice versa. Additionally, 2D spectroscopy
confirmed the observed sub-picosecond dynamics. In contrast to other conjugated
polymers such as MEH-PPV, which is investigated in the last chapter, ultrafast
energy transfer in squaraine polymers is based on the matching of the density of states
between donor and acceptor segments due to the small reorganization energy in cyanine-like
chromophores.
Finally, the photo-induced dynamics of the aggregated phase of the conjugated polymer
MEH-PPV was investigated in cooperation with the group of Prof. Dr. Anna Köhler at the University of Bayreuth. Our collaborators had previously described the aggregation of MEH-PPV upon cooling by the formation of so-called HJ-aggregates based on exciton
theory. By TA measurements and by making use of an affiliated band analysis distinct
relaxation processes in the excited state and to the ground state were discriminated. By
employing 2D spectroscopy the energy transfer between different conjugated segments
within the aggregated polymer was resolved. The initial exciton relaxation within the
aggregated phase indicates a low exciton mobility, in contrast to the subsequent energy
transfer between different chromophores within several picoseconds.
This work contributes by its systematic study of structure-dependent relaxation dynamics
to the basic understanding of the structure-function relationship within complex
molecular systems. The investigated molecular classes display a high potential to increase
efficiencies of opto-electronic devices, e.g., organic solar cells, by the selective choice of
the molecular morphology.
We present a fast and sensitive polarimeter combining common-path optical heterodyne interferometry and accumulative spectroscopy to detect rotatory power. The sensitivity of rotatory detection is determined to be 0.10 milli-degrees for a measurement time of only one second and an interaction length of 250 µm. Its suitability for femtosecond studies is demonstrated in a non-resonant two-photon photodissociation experiment.
We use pump-repump-probe transient absorption spectroscopy to investigate the role of higher-lying electronic states in the photochemistry of a molecular switch. Moreover, replacing the pump pulse by a pulse-shaper-generated phase-stable double pulse, triggered-exchange two-dimensional (TE2D) electronic spectroscopy is established in the visible regime.
Ultraviolet irradiation of CO-releasing molecules (CORMs) in water eventually leads to the loss of several carbon monoxide ligands.We show for an exemplary manganese tricarbonyl CORM that only one ligand is photolyzed off on an ultrafast timescale and that some molecules may undergo geminate recombination.
Three spectroscopic techniques are presented that provide simultaneous spatial and temporal resolution: modified confocal microscopy with heterodyne detection, space-time-resolved spectroscopy using coherent control concepts, and coherent two-dimensional nano-spectroscopy. Latest experimental results are discussed.
Organic semiconductors are attractive for optical sensing applications due to the effortless processing on large active area of several \(cm^2\), which is difficult to achieve with solid-state devices. However, compared to silicon photodiodes, sensitivity and dynamic behavior remain a major challenge with organic sensors. Here, we show that charge trapping phenomena deteriorate the bandwidth of organic photodiodes (OPDs) to a few Hz at low-light levels. We demonstrate that, despite the large OPD capacitances of similar to 10 nF \(cm^{-2}\), a frequency response in the kHz regime can be achieved at light levels as low as 20 nW \(cm^{-2}\) by appropriate interface engineering, which corresponds to a 1000-fold increase compared to state-of-the-art OPDs. Such device characteristics indicate that large active area OPDs are suitable for industrial sensing and even match medical requirements for single X-ray pulse detection in the millisecond range.
Within the framework of this thesis, photolysis reactions in the liquid phase were investigated by means of ultrafast optical spectroscopy. Apart from molecular studies dealing with the highly spin-dependent reactivity of diphenylcarbene (DPC) in binary solvent
mixtures and ligand dissociation reactions of so-called CO-releasing molecules (CORMs),
special emphasis was put on the implementation and characterization of methods improving
and extending the signal detection in conventional pump–probe transient absorption setups.
The assumption of DPC being an archetypal triplet-ground-state arylcarbene was recently questioned by matrix-isolation studies at low temperatures. DPC embedded in argon matrices revealed a hitherto unknown reactivity when the carbene environment was modified by small amounts of methanol dopant molecules. To complement these findings with liquid-phase experiments at room temperature, femtosecond pump–probe transient absorption spectroscopy with probing in the visible and ultraviolet regime was employed to unravel primary reaction processes of DPC in solvent mixtures. Supported by quantum chemical simulations conducted by our collaborators, it was shown that a competition between the reaction pathways occurs that not only depends on the solvent molecule near-by but also on its interaction with other solvent molecules. In-depth analysis of the solvation dynamics and the amount of nascent intermediates corroborates the importance of a hydrogen-bonded complex with a protic solvent molecule, in striking analogy to complexes found at cryogenic temperatures.
Probing the transient absorption of molecules in the mid-infrared spectral range benefits from the high chemical specificity of molecules’ vibrational signatures. The technique of chirped-pulse upconversion (CPU) constitutes a promising alternative to standard direct multichannel MCT detection when accessing this spectral detection window. Hence, one chapter of this thesis is dedicated to a direct comparison between both detection methods. By conducting an exemplary pump–probe transient absorption experiment, it became evident, that the additional nonlinear interaction step is responsible for increased noise levels when using CPU. However, a correction procedure capable of removing these additional noise contributions—stemming from the fundamental laser radiation used for upconversion—was successfully tested. Perhaps most importantly for various spectroscopic applications, CPU scored with a significantly extended detection bandwidth owing to the high pixel numbers of modern CCD cameras.
Transition-metal complexes capable of releasing small molecular messengers upon photoactivation are promising sources of gasotransmitters such as carbon monoxide (CO) or nitric oxide (NO) in biological applications. However, only little is known about the characteristic time scales of ligand dissociation in this class of molecules. For this purpose, two complexes were investigated with femtosecond time resolution: [Mn(CO)3(tpm)]Cl with tpm=tris(2-pyrazolyl)methane, a manganese tricarbonyl complex which has proven to be selective and cytotoxic to cancer cells, and [Mo(CO)2(NO)(iPr3tacn)]PF6 with iPr3tacn=1,4,7-triisopropyl-1,4,7-triazacyclononane, a molybdenum complex containing both carbonyl and nitrosyl ligands. By conducting pump–probe transient absorption measurements in different spectral probing windows supported by quantum chemical calculations and linear absorption spectroscopy, it was shown that both complexes are able to release one CO ligand within the first few picoseconds after UV excitation. The results complement existing studies which focused on the molecules’ ligand-releasing properties upon long-term exposure. The additional information gained on an ultrafast time scale provides a comprehensive understanding of individual reaction steps connected with ligand release in this class of molecules. Hence, the studies might create new incentives to develop modified molecules for specific applications.