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Sowohl MAPK als auch Adenosin werden mit Tumorproliferation und Angiogenese in Verbindung gebracht. MDA-MB-231 Östrogenrezeptor-negative Brustkrebszellen zeigen eine sehr starke Expression des A2BAR, der außerdem der einzige von dieser Zelllinie exprimierte Adenosinrezeptor ist. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass MDA-MB-231-Brustkrebszellen eine hohe basale MAPK-Aktivität aufweisen, welche durch Stimulation mit FCS nicht weiter gesteigert werden kann. Diese hohe basale MAPK-Aktivität wird durch die src-Kinase und Her2 verursacht, da eine Inhibition dieser beiden Tyrosinkinasen eine Hemmung der basalen ERK-Phosphorylierung induziert. Interessanterweise führt die Stimulation des A2BAR der MDA-MB-231-Brustkrebszellen mit dem unselektiven Agonisten NECA zu einer zeitanhängigen Inhibition der ERK-1/2-Phosphorylierung. Eine Behandlung der Brustkrebszelllinie mit 10 µM CGS 21680 zeigten keinen Einfluss auf die ERK-Aktivität, weshalb davon ausgegangen werden kann, dass die zeitabhängige Inhibition der ERK-1/2-Phosphorylierung durch den A2BAR vermittelt wird. Eine Beteiligung von cAMP an der MAPK-Signaltransduktion des A2BAR scheint insofern wahrscheinlich, als sowohl eine Behandlung der Zellen mit Forskolin als auch der Kombination aus cAMP-AM und dem PDE4-Inhibitor Rolipram eine zeitabhängige Hemmung der ERK-1/2-Phosphorylierung induzieren. Jedoch scheint weder die PKA noch die PI3K an dieser Signaltransduktion des A2BAR beteiligt zu sein, da die A2BAR-vermittelte Inhibition der MAPK auch in Anwesenheit von PKA- und PI3K-Inhibitoren bestehen bleibt. Auch scheinen cAMP-GEFs wie beispielsweise Epac in diesem Zusammenhang keine Rolle zu spielen. In Gegenwart des PLC-Inhibitors U-73122 und des Ca2+-Chelators BAPTA verschwand die NECA-induzierte Hemmung der ERK-1/2-Phosphorylierung, was für eine Beteiligung der PLC und des Ca2+ an der A2BAR-vermittelten Hemmung der MAPK-Aktivität spricht. Letzten Endes konnte jedoch kein Mechanismus eruiert werden, welcher diese A2BAR-vermittelte, Ca2+-abhängige MAPK-Hemmung mediiert, da weder eine Inhibition der PKC, der CamKII oder des Calcineurins Einfluss auf die NECA-induzierte MAPK-Hemmung hatten. Was Wachstum und Proliferation der Östrogenrezeptor-negativen Brustkrebszelllinie MDA-MB-231 anbelangt, so konnte gezeigt werden, dass der unselektive Agonist NECA zu einer signifikanten Wachstumshemmung dieser Brustkrebszelllinie führt. Allerdings kommt es aufgrund einer Desensitisierung der A2BAR in MDA-MB-231-Brustkrebszellen lediglich zu einem transienten proliferationshemmenden Effekt nach Stimulation mit NECA.
Recent analyses conducted by German official food control reported detection of the aromatic amides N-(2,4-dimethylphenyl)acetamide (NDPA), N-acetoacetyl-m-xylidine (NAAX) and 3-hydroxy-2-naphthanilide (Naphthol AS) in cold water extracts from certain food contact materials made from paper or cardboard, including paper straws, paper napkins, and cupcake liners. Because aromatic amides may be cleaved to potentially genotoxic primary amines upon oral intake, these findings raise concern that transfer of NDPA, NAAX and Naphthol AS from food contact materials into food may present a risk to human health. The aim of the present work was to assess the stability of NDPA, NAAX and Naphthol AS and potential cleavage to 2,4-dimethylaniline (2,4-DMA) and aniline during simulated passage through the gastrointestinal tract using static in vitro digestion models. Using the digestion model established by the National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM, Bilthoven, NL) and a protocol recommended by the European Food Safety Authority, potential hydrolysis of the aromatic amides to the respective aromatic amines was assessed by LC–MS/MS following incubation of the aromatic amides with digestive fluid simulants. Time-dependent hydrolysis of NDPA and NAAX resulting in formation of the primary aromatic amine 2,4-DMA was consistently observed in both models. The highest rate of cleavage of NDPA and NAAX was recorded following 4 h incubation with 0.07 M HCl as gastric-juice simulant, and amounted to 0.21% and 0.053%, respectively. Incubation of Naphthol AS with digestive fluid simulants did not give rise to an increase in the concentration of aniline above the background that resulted from the presence of aniline as an impurity of the test compound. Considering the lack of evidence for aniline formation from Naphthol AS and the extremely low rate of hydrolysis of the amide bonds of NDPA and NAAX during simulated passage through the gastrointestinal tract that gives rise to only very minor amounts of the potentially mutagenic and/or carcinogenic aromatic amine 2,4-DMA, risk assessment based on assumption of 100% cleavage to the primary aromatic amines would appear to overestimate health risks related to the presence of aromatic amides in food contact materials.
Despite recent therapeutic advances the prognosis of heart failure remains poor. Recent research suggests that heart failure is a heterogeneous syndrome and that many patients have stimulating auto-antibodies directed against the second extracellular loop of the \(β_1\) adrenergic receptor \((β_1EC2)\). In a human-analogous rat model such antibodies cause myocyte damage and heart failure. Here we used this model to test a novel antibody-directed strategy aiming to prevent and/or treat antibody-induced cardiomyopathy. To generate heart failure, we immunised n = 76/114 rats with a fusion protein containing the human β1EC2 (amino-acids 195–225) every 4 weeks; n = 38/114 rats were control-injected with 0.9% NaCl. Intravenous application of a novel cyclic peptide mimicking \(β_1EC2\) (\(β_1EC2-CP\), 1.0 mg/kg every 4 weeks) or administration of the \(β_1-blocker\) bisoprolol (15 mg/kg/day orally) was initiated either 6 weeks (cardiac function still normal, prevention-study, n = 24 (16 treated vs. 8 untreated)) or 8.5 months after the 1st immunisation (onset of cardiomyopathy, therapy-study, n = 52 (40 treated vs. 12 untreated)); n = 8/52 rats from the therapy-study received \(β_1EC2-CP/bisoprolol\) co-treatment. We found that \(β_1EC2-CP\) prevented and (alone or as add-on drug) treated antibody-induced cardiac damage in the rat, and that its efficacy was superior to mono-treatment with bisoprolol, a standard drug in heart failure. While bisoprolol mono-therapy was able to stop disease-progression, \(β_1EC2-CP\) mono-therapy -or as an add-on to bisoprolol- almost fully reversed antibody-induced cardiac damage. The cyclo¬peptide acted both by scavenging free \(anti-β_1EC2-antibodies\) and by targeting \(β_1EC2\)-specific memory B-cells involved in antibody-production. Our model provides the basis for the clinical translation of a novel double-acting therapeutic strategy that scavenges harmful \(anti-β_1EC2-antibodies\) and also selectively depletes memory B-cells involved in the production of such antibodies. Treatment with immuno-modulating cyclopeptides alone or as an add-on to \(β_1\)-blockade represents a promising new therapeutic option in immune-mediated heart failure.
Photoaffinity-labeled N-formyl chemotactic peptide receptors from human neutrophils solubilized in octyl glucoside exhibit two forms upon sucrose density gradient sedimentation, with apparent Sedimentation coefficients of approximately 4 and 7 S. Tbe 7 S form can be converted to the 4 S form by guanosine 5' -0- (3-thiotriphosphate) (GTP-yS) with an EC&o of -20 nM, suggesting that the 7 S form may represent a physical complex of the receptor with endogenous G protein (Jesaitis, A. J., Tolley, J. 0., Bokoch, G. M., and Allen, R. A. (1989) J. Cell Biol. 109, 2783-2790). To probe the nature of the 7 S form, we reconstituted the 7 S form from the 4 S form by adding purified G protein. The 4 S form, obtained by solubilizing GTP-yS-treated neutrophil plasma membranes, was incubated with purified (>95%) G. protein from bovine brain (containing both G\(_{ia1}\) and G\(_{ia2}\)) or with neutrophil G protein (G\(_a\)), and formation of the 7 S complex was analyzed on sucrose density gradients. The EC\(_{50}\) of 7 S complex formation induced by the two G proteins was 70 \(\pm\) 25 and 170 \(\pm\) 40 DM for G\(_a\) and G\(_1\), respectively. No complexation was measurable when bovine transducin (G\(_t\)) was used up to 30 times the EC\(_{50\) for G\(_a\). The EC\(_{50}\) for G\(_t\) was the same for receptors, obtained from formyl peptide-stimulated or unstimulated cells. The addition of 10 \(\mu\)M GTP-yS to the reconstituted 7 S complex caused a complete reversion of the receptor to the 4 S form, and anti-G\(_1\) peptide antisera immunosedimented the 7 S form. ADP-ribosylation of Gt prevented formation of the 7 S form even at 20 times the concentration of unribosylated G. normally used to attain 50% conversion to the 7 S form. These observations suggest that the 7 S species is a pbysical complex containing N-formyl chemotactic peptide receptor and G protein.
Obwohl radioaktiv markiertes meta-Iodbenzylguanidin (MIBG) häufig in der Diagnose und bei der Behandlung von Neuroblastomen in der Klink Verwendung findet, ist bis heute sehr wenig über seine Pharmakologie bekannt. In der Literatur finden sich öfters Andeutungen, die aber nicht belegt wurden. So fehlten Untersuchungen über indirekt-sympathomimetische Wirkungen von MIBG. Vor diesem Hintergrund untersuchten wir am isoliert perfundierten Kaninchenherzen die Wirkung von MIBG im Vergleich zum Prototyp eines indirekten Sympathomimetikums (Tyramin). Dabei zeigte sich, daß MIBG zwar etwas potenter aber nicht so effektiv wie Tyramin war. Dies zeigte sich sowohl beim Paramter Herzfrequenz als auch beim Parameter Noradrenalin-Freisetzung. Im Gegensatz dazu zeigte sich im Zeitverlauf, daß die Wirkung von MIBG wesentlich länger anhielt als die von Tyramin. Der Unterschied zwischen MIBG und Tyramin bezüglich der Effektivität als indirekte Sympathomimetika konnte mit unterschiedlichen Wirkstärken beider Substanzen als Hemmstoff des vesikulären Monoamin-Transporters erklärt werden. Tyramin und MIBG wurden in Versuchen mit Neuroblastomzellen mit gleicher Geschwindigkeit durch Uptake1 aufgenommen, Tyramin war aber ein wesentlich potenterer Hemmstoff des vesikulären Monoamin-Transporters als MIBG. Da aber MIBG im Gegensatz zu Tyramin kein Substrat der neuronalen Monoaminoxidase ist, hielt seine Wirkung auch deutlich länger an als die von Tyramin. Die indirekt sympathomimetische Wirkung von MIBG wurde anschließend auch in-vivo untersucht. Dort zeigte sich auch, daß MIBG trotz im Vergleich zu klinischen Anwendungen hoher Dosen wesentlich schwächer indirekt-sympathomimetisch wirkt als Tyramin. In diesen Versuchen wurde auch beobachtet, daß die indirekt-sympathomimetische Wirkung auf die Herzfrequenz durch eine Gegenregulation des Nervensystems (nämlich den Barorezeptor-Reflex) maskiert wurde. Obwohl MIBG in der Literatur von Anfang an als adrenerger Neuronenblocker bezeichnet wurde, fand sich in der Literatur kein direkter Beweis für diese Behauptung. Mit Hilfe eines in-vitro Modells konnte in der vorliegenden Arbeit der Beweis erbracht werden, daß MIBG ein adrenerger Neuronenblocker ist. Dazu benutzten wir als Parameter die durch elektrische Stimulation induzierte Freisetzung von Noradrenalin im spontan schlagenden, perfundierten Kaninchenherzen. Die stimulationsbedingte Abgabe von Noradrenalin ins Perfusat wurde durch MIBG zeit- und konzentrationsabhängig blockiert. Da viele adrenerge Neuronenblocker das Enzym Monoaminoxidase (MAO) hemmen, wurde in-vitro untersucht, ob MIBG die beiden Iso-Enzyme MAO-A und MAO-B hemmt. Es konnte gezeigt werden, daß MIBG die MAO kompetitiv hemmt und zwar bevorzugt die Isoform MAO-A. Diese MAO-Hemmung wurde auch in-vivo in den Versuchen mit narkotisierten Kaninchen beobachtet. MIBG verminderte nämlich dosisabhängig die Konzentration des desaminierten Noradrenalin-Metaboliten DOPEG im Blutplasma der Tiere. Die Beobachtung, daß für die Hemmung der MAO-A im perfundierten Herzen eine IC50 von 17 nM, im Gewebehomogenat von Herzen dagegen eine IC50 von 18 µM gefunden wurde, spricht dafür, daß MIBG als Substrat von Uptake1 im Axoplasma der sympathischen Neurone des Herzens um den Faktor 1000 angereichert wird. Somit konnten in der vorliegenden Arbeit einige offene Fragen zur Pharmakologie von MIBG im Bereich des sympathomimetischen Nervensystems beantwortet werden, die auch für den klinischen Einsatz von MIBG wichtig sein könnten.
Schon vor mehr als zwei Jahrzehnten wurde eine erhöhte Tumorentstehungsrate bei Patienten mit chronischer Nierenerkrankung unter Dialysebehandlung festgestellt. Eine der wahrscheinlichsten Erklärungen für dieses Phänomen ist die klinische Manifestation eines Immundefektes innerhalb dieses Patientenkollektives. Lymphozyten von Patienten mit chronischen Nierenerkrankungen ohne Dialyse und Dialysepatienten mit einer Behandlungsdauer von mehr als 120 Monaten verfügen nachweislich über eine reduzierte DNA-Reparaturfähigkeit. Zusätzlich weisen sie eine erhöhte Rate von Mikrokernen auf, was für verstärkte gentoxische Einflüsse im Patientenblut spricht. In dieser Arbeit wurde mittels Comet Assay, einem sensiblen Testverfahren zur Quantifizierung von DNA-Schäden auf Einzellzellniveau, aus verschiedenen Gruppen von chronisch Nierenkranken die Zellkern-DNA von peripheren Lymphozyten auf Schäden untersucht. Neben Patienten mit leicht bis stark erhöhten Kreatininspiegeln wurden auch Kollektive mit Hämodialyse und Hämodiafiltrationsbehandlung auf DNA-Schäden untersucht und miteinander verglichen. In den Untersuchungen konnte gezeigt werden, dass in der Gruppe der chronisch Nierenkranken ohne Dialysebehandlung offensichtlich ein Zusammenhang zwischen Höhe des Kreatininspiegels und einer durch den Comet Assay feststellbaren DNA-Schädigung besteht: im Kollektiv der Hämodialysepatienten ist mit der Dauer der Behandlung ein Anstieg des Schadens zu verzeichnen. Bei Patienten mit Hämodiafiltrationsbehandlung hingegen war kein Anstieg der DNA-Schäden mit der Länge der Behandlung feststellbar. Bei gleicher Behandlungsdauer bestehen zwischen Hämodialyse- und Hämodiafiltrationsgruppe nur unwesentliche Schadensdifferenzen. Dies war nicht vorhersehbar, da besonders Patienten mit stärkeren gesundheitlichen Einschränkungen in den Vorzug der Hämodiafiltration gelangen. Insgesamt zeigten jedoch alle untersuchten Gruppen einen signifikanten Anstieg der DNA-Schädigung gegenüber den Kontrollen. Da der Comet Assay derzeit noch mit methodischen und patientenbedingten Ergebniss-Schwankungen behaftet ist, muss jede Interpretation mit Zurückhaltung erfolgen. Insbesondere muss anhand eines Zusammenhanges hinsichtlich Gentoxizität und vorliegender Erkrankung untersucht und kritisch hinterfragt werden, ob ein früherer Beginn der Dialyse-Behandlung für den Patienten von Vorteil sein könnte. Inwieweit eine Umstellung von Hämodialyse auf Hämodiafiltration die Schäden der lymphozytären Zellkern DNA und somit eventuell auch die Tumorentstehungsraten beeinflusst, ist durch weitere Forschungen auf diesem Gebiet zu klären.
Das Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosteron-System (RAAS) reguliert den Blutdruck und den Wasser- und Elektrolythaushalt des Körpers. Angiotensin II (Ang II), das aktive Peptid des RAAS, bewirkt eine Vasokonstriktion und in höheren Konzentrationen Bluthochdruck. Epidemiologische Studien haben gezeigt, dass eine Verbindung zwischen Hypertonie und dem gehäuften Auftreten von Krebs besteht. Eine Metaanalyse von 13 Fall-Kontroll-Studien konnte einen Zusammenhang zwischen Hypertonie und einem erhöhten Risiko, an einem Nierenzellkarzinom zu erkranken nachweisen. In vitro-Studien und Studien an der isolierten Niere konnten bereits genotoxische Effekte des blutdruckregulierenden Hormons Ang II zeigen. Zielsetzung dieser Arbeit war es, zunächst in vivo zu prüfen, ob steigende Ang II-Konzentrationen einen Einfluss auf die genomische Stabilität von Nieren- und Herzzellen besitzen. Hierzu wurden im Dosisversuch männliche C57BL/6-Mäuse mit osmotischen Minipumpen ausgestattet, die Ang II in vier verschiedenen Konzentrationen zwischen 60 ng/kg min und 1 µg/kg min über einen Zeitraum von 28 Tagen abgeben sollten. Während des Versuchszeitraums fanden regelmäßige, nicht-invasive Blutdruckmessungen an der Maus statt. Die Behandlung mit Ang II führte zu einem signifikanten Anstieg des Blutdrucks und zu histopathologischen Veränderungen der Glomeruli und des Tubulussystems, was sich in einer verschlechterten Albumin-Ausscheidung wiederspiegelte. Außerdem induzierte die Behandlung mit Ang II die dosisabhängige Bildung von reaktiven Sauerstoffspezies, DNA-Doppelstrangbrüchen und oxidativer DNA-Schäden. Diese Parameter waren bereits in Tieren erhöht, die keinen Bluthochdruck entwickelten und stiegen mit der höchsten Ang II-Konzentration noch an, obwohl hier im Vergleich zur Vorgängergruppe, die eine geringere Ang II-Konzentration erhielt, kein höherer Blutdruck vorlag. Diese Beobachtung deutet auf eine mögliche Unabhängigkeit des entstandenen Schadens vom Bluthochdruck hin und lenkt die Aufmerksamkeit auf Ang II als genomschädigenden Faktor. Der folgende Interventionsversuch sollte Aufschluss über die mögliche blutdruckunabhängige genomschädigende Wirkung von Ang II geben. Dazu wurden C57BL/6-Mäuse neben der Ang II-Behandlung in einer Konzentration von 600 ng/kg min zusätzlich über einen Zeitraum von 28 Tagen mit 5 verschiedenen Substanzen behandelt: Candesartan, Ramipril, Hydralazin, Eplerenon und Tempol. Candesartan ist ein Ang II-Rezeptor-Antagonist, der selektiv den AT1-Rezeptor blockiert. Ramipril wirkt als Hemmer des Angiotensin-Konversions-Enzyms und verhindert die Bildung von endogenem Ang II aus Ang I. Hydralazin, als Vasodilatator, greift nicht in das Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosteron-System ein. Eplerenon blockiert als selektiver Aldosteronantagonist den Mineralkortikoidrezeptor. Tempol wirkt als Antioxidans. Die Behandlung mit Ang II in einer Konzentration von 600 ng/kg min im Interventionsversuch führte zur Hochregulierung der NADPH-Oxidase 4 und zur Produktion reaktiver Sauerstoffspezies in der Niere und im kardiovaskulären Gewebe. Der entstandene oxidative Stress führte wiederum zu DNA-Schäden und einer Aktivierung der Transkriptionsfaktoren Nrf2 und NF-B. Nrf2-vermittelt wurde die Induktion antioxidativer Gene ausgelöst, was allerdings nicht ausreichend war, um vor Ang II-induzierten ROS und DNA-Schäden zu schützen. Eine längerfristige NF-B-Aktivierung durch hohe Ang II-Spiegel kann das Überleben und die Proliferation von Zellen, die DNA-Schäden in Form von Doppelstrangbrüchen tragen, fördern, was eine Tumor-initiierende Wirkung haben könnte. Die beschriebenen Effekte erhöhter Ang II-Spiegel konnten durch die Intervention mit dem AT1-Rezeptorblocker Candesartan verhindert werden, was die Beteiligung des Rezeptors nachweist. Eine blutdruckunabhängige, genomschädigende Wirkung von Ang II konnte leider durch die Intervention mit Hydralazin nicht verdeutlicht werden, da die erwünschte langfristige Blutdrucksenkung ausblieb. Allerdings zeigte die Intervention mit Tempol eine Abnahme an oxidativem Stress und DNA-Schäden trotz ausbleibender Blutdrucksenkung. Die Bedeutung von ROS in der Bildung von DNA-Schäden und die Unabhängigkeit dieser Schäden vom Blutdruck konnten somit hervorgehoben werden. Die Tatsache, dass die Intervention mit Ramipril den Blutdruck nicht senken konnte, der oxidative Stress und die DNA-Schäden durch mögliche antioxidative Eigenschaften aber vermindert wurden, unterstützt diese Beobachtung. Die Intervention mit Eplerenon führte zum Teil zu einer Verminderung an ROS und DNA-Schäden, brachte diese Parameter aber nicht auf Kontrollniveau zurück. Somit ist eine Beteiligung von Aldosteron nicht auszuschließen.
INTRODUCTION: Recently, we could show that angiotensin II, the reactive peptide of the blood pressure-regulating renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system, causes the formation of reactive oxygen species and DNA damage in kidneys and hearts of hypertensive mice. To further investigate on the one hand the mechanism of DNA damage caused by angiotensin II, and on the other hand possible intervention strategies against end-organ damage, the effects of substances interfering with the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system on angiotensin II-induced genomic damage were studied.
METHODS: In C57BL/6-mice, hypertension was induced by infusion of 600 ng/kg • min angiotensin II. The animals were additionally treated with the angiotensin II type 1 receptor blocker candesartan, the mineralocorticoid receptor blocker eplerenone and the antioxidant tempol. DNA damage and the activation of transcription factors were studied by immunohistochemistry and protein expression analysis.
RESULTS: Administration of angiotensin II led to a significant increase of blood pressure, decreased only by candesartan. In kidneys and hearts of angiotensin II-treated animals, significant oxidative stress could be detected (1.5-fold over control). The redox-sensitive transcription factors Nrf2 and NF-κB were activated in the kidney by angiotensin II-treatment (4- and 3-fold over control, respectively) and reduced by all interventions. In kidneys and hearts an increase of DNA damage (3- and 2-fold over control, respectively) and of DNA repair (3-fold over control) was found. These effects were ameliorated by all interventions in both organs. Consistently, candesartan and tempol were more effective than eplerenone.
CONCLUSION: Angiotensin II-induced DNA damage is caused by angiotensin II type 1 receptor-mediated formation of oxidative stress in vivo. The angiotensin II-mediated physiological increase of aldosterone adds to the DNA-damaging effects. Blocking angiotensin II and mineralocorticoid receptors therefore has beneficial effects on end-organ damage independent of blood pressure normalization.
In dieser Arbeit wurden die tumorpromovierenden Effekte von 2-Acetylaminofluoren (2-AAF), 2-Nitrosofluoren (2-NOF) und Phenobarbital (PB) auf die Expression des EGF-Rezeptors (EGF-R), der Proteinkinase C (PKC), der Protoonkogene c-FOS und c-JUN in HepG2 Zellen bestimmt. Nur PB hemmte die Expression des EGF-R, wohingegen die PKC, c-FOS und c-JUN nicht beeinflusst wurden. 2-AAF, 2-NOF und PB wirkten konzentrationsabhängig zytotoxisch und antiproliferativ auf HepG2-Zellen. Die PKC scheint an diesem Effekt beteiligt zu sein. Die Bindungsaktivität der Transkriptionsfaktoren AP1 und NFkappa B wurde durch 2-NOF und Phenobarbital erhöht, wohingegen der Effekt von 2-AAF nicht endeutig zu klären war.
Die Deletion des AT2-Rezeptors (AT2-KO) führt zu erhöhter Blutdruckempfindlichkeit und vaskulärer Hypertrophie durch Aktivitätszunahhme der P70S6-Kinase. Die Vasodilatation von Blutgefäßen wird maßgeblich durch beta1-adrenerge Rezeptoren vermittelt. Die Deletion von alpha2-adrenergen Rezeptoren (alpha2-KO) führt zur Entwicklung einer Herzinsuffizienz nach Aortenstenose. Der Mortalitätanstieg ist mit erhöhten Plasmanoradrenalin-Spiegeln (a2A-KO), bzw. Plasmaadrenalin-Spiegeln (a2C-KO) assoziiert.
Mathematical optimization framework allows the identification of certain nodes within a signaling network. In this work, we analyzed the complex extracellular-signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) cascade in cardiomyocytes using the framework to find efficient adjustment screws for this cascade that is important for cardiomyocyte survival and maladaptive heart muscle growth. We modeled optimal pharmacological intervention points that are beneficial for the heart, but avoid the occurrence of a maladaptive ERK1/2 modification, the autophosphorylation of ERK at threonine 188 (ERK\(^{Thr188}\) phosphorylation), which causes cardiac hypertrophy. For this purpose, a network of a cardiomyocyte that was fitted to experimental data was equipped with external stimuli that model the pharmacological intervention points. Specifically, two situations were considered. In the first one, the cardiomyocyte was driven to a desired expression level with different treatment strategies. These strategies were quantified with respect to beneficial effects and maleficent side effects and then which one is the best treatment strategy was evaluated. In the second situation, it was shown how to model constitutively activated pathways and how to identify drug targets to obtain a desired activity level that is associated with a healthy state and in contrast to the maleficent expression pattern caused by the constitutively activated pathway. An implementation of the algorithms used for the calculations is also presented in this paper, which simplifies the application of the presented framework for drug targeting, optimal drug combinations and the systematic and automatic search for pharmacological intervention points. The codes were designed such that they can be combined with any mathematical model given by ordinary differential equations.
Vitamin B6 deficiency has been linked to cognitive impairment in human brain disorders for decades. Still, the molecular mechanisms linking vitamin B6 to these pathologies remain poorly understood, and whether vitamin B6 supplementation improves cognition is unclear as well. Pyridoxal phosphatase (PDXP), an enzyme that controls levels of pyridoxal 5’-phosphate (PLP), the co-enzymatically active form of vitamin B6, may represent an alternative therapeutic entry point into vitamin B6-associated pathologies. However, pharmacological PDXP inhibitors to test this concept are lacking. We now identify a PDXP and age-dependent decline of PLP levels in the murine hippocampus that provides a rationale for the development of PDXP inhibitors. Using a combination of small molecule screening, protein crystallography and biolayer interferometry, we discover and analyze 7,8-dihydroxyflavone (7,8-DHF) as a direct and potent PDXP inhibitor. 7,8-DHF binds and reversibly inhibits PDXP with low micromolar affinity and sub-micromolar potency. In mouse hippocampal neurons, 7,8-DHF increases PLP in a PDXP-dependent manner. These findings validate PDXP as a druggable target. Of note, 7,8-DHF is a well-studied molecule in brain disorder models, although its mechanism of action is actively debated. Our discovery of 7,8-DHF as a PDXP inhibitor offers novel mechanistic insights into the controversy surrounding 7,8-DHF-mediated effects in the brain.
Linear dose-response relationship for DNA adducts in rat liver from chronic exposure to aflatoxin B1
(1990)
Male F-344 rats were given eH]aßatoxin B1 (AFB1) in the drinking water at three exposure Ievels (0.02, 0.6, 20 J,Lgll, resulting in average dose Ievels of 2.2, 73, 2110 nglkg per day). After 4, 6 and 8 weeks, DNA was ~ted frorn the livers and analyzed for aßatoxin-DNA adducts. Tbe Ievel of DNA adducts did not increase significantly after 4 weeks, indicating that a steady-state for adduct formation and removal had nearly been reached. At 8 weeks, the adduct Ievels were 0.91, 32 and 850 nucleotide-aßatoxin adducts per to' nucleotides, i.e. clearly proportional to the dose. At the high dose Ievel, a near SO% tumor incidence would be expected in a 2-year bioassay with F -344 rats while the low dose used is within the range of estlmated human dietary exposures to aßatoxin in W estem countries. The proportionality seen between exposure and steady-state DNA adduct Ievel is discussed with respect to a linear extrapolation of the tumor risk to low dose.
Zahlreiche experimentelle Befunde lassen vermuten, dass G-Protein gekoppelte Rezeptoren (GPCR) nach ihrer Aktivierung einer ligandenselektiven Änderung der Rezeptorkonformation unterliegen. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es dieses Phänomen am Subtyp 2 der muskarinischen Acetylcholinrezeptoren (M2 AChR) zu untersuchen. Muskarinische Acetylcholinrezeptoren (mAChR) können in fünf Subtypen (M1-M5) unterschieden werden. Durch die Beteiligung der mAChR an zahlreichen physiologischen Prozessen stellen sie wichtige Zielstrukturen pharmakologischer Therapien dar. Da die orthosterische Ligandenbindestelle (= Bindestelle des endogenen Liganden) in allen fünf Subtypen hoch konserviert ist, wird ihr pharmakologischer Nutzen derzeit allerdings durch die unselektive Rezeptormodulation und dem damit verbundenen Auftreten unerwünschter Arzneimittelwirkungen stark limitiert. Ein Ansatz zur Erzielung subtypselektiver Effekte besteht in der Verwendung allosterischer Modulatoren. Da die allosterische Bindestelle der mAChR eine geringere Sequenzhomologie aufweist, können so gezielt einzelne Subtypen der mAChR reguliert werden. Der M2 AChR stellt hinsichtlich allosterischer Modulation ein gut charakterisiertes Modellsystem dar. Für ihn wurde bereits eine Vielzahl allosterischer Liganden entwickelt. Auch bitopische Liganden, die sowohl einen allosterischen als auch einen orthosterischen Anteil enthalten, wurden für den M2 AChR bereits beschrieben. Im ersten Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden verschiedene FRET-Sensoren des M2 AChR generiert und charakterisiert. Als FRET-Paar wurden das cyan fluoreszierende Protein (CFP) und der niedermolekulare fluorescein-basierte Fluorophor FlAsH (fluorescein arsenical hairpin binder) gewählt. CFP wurde in den Sensoren am Ende des C-Terminus angefügt. Die zur Markierung mit FlAsH nötige Tetracysteinsequenz wurde in verschiedenen Bereichen der dritten intrazellulären Rezeptorschleife (IL) eingebracht. Die auf diese Weise erstellten Re-zeptorsensoren trugen das Tetracysteinmotiv in der N terminalen (M2i3-N) bzw. in der C terminalen Region (M2i3-C) von IL 3. Die Charakterisierung der Rezeptorsensoren bezüglich Ligandenbindung, Gi-Protein Aktivierung und β-Arrestin2 Translokation ergab keine signifikanten Unterschiede zwischen M2i3-N, M2i3 C und M2CFP oder Wildtyp M2 AChR. Zunächst wurden sowohl unterschiedliche orthosterische, als auch allosterische Liganden hinsichtlich ihrer mittleren effektiven Konzentration und ihrer maximalen Wirkstärke an den Rezeptorsensoren untersucht. Mit Hilfe von FRET-Messungen konnte ein superago-nistisches Verhalten des orthosterischen Testliganden Iperoxo gezeigt werden. Die Eigenschaften der allosterischen Substanzen wurden durch Messung der Rezeptordeakti-vierungskinetik und des maximalen Hemmeffekts auf einen vorstimulierten Rezeptor charakterisiert. Alle allosterischen Liganden deaktivierten den vorstimulierten M2 AChR mit einer schnelleren Kinetik als Atropin. Die EC50-Werte der unterschiedlichen Substanzen waren unabhängig von der Markierungsposition im verwendeten Rezeptorsensor vergleich-bar. Ausnahmen bildeten die allosterischen Liganden JK 289, JK 338, ½ W84 und EHW 477, die liganden- und sensorabhängig unterschiedliche mittlere effektive Konzentrationen aufwie-sen. Bei der Untersuchung der Konformationsänderung des M2 AChR konnte kein liganden-selektiver Unterschied zwischen den FRET-Signalen für 19 getestete orthosterische Liganden beobachtet werden. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass alle orthosterischen Testliganden eine dem Acetylcholin (ACh) vergleichbare Änderung der M2 AChR Konformation induzier-ten. Um zu untersuchen, ob für die orthosterischen Testliganden eine Korrelation zwischen ihrer maximalen Wirkstärke hinsichtlich Rezeptoraktivierung in FRET-Experimenten und der Aktivierung nachgeschalteter Signalwege besteht, wurde die orthosterisch-vermittelte Translokation von β-Arrestin2 mit Hilfe der Konfokalmikroskopie bestimmt. Bis auf 5-Methyl-furmethiodid translozierten alle orthosterischen Liganden β-Arrestin2 in einem Ausmaß, das mit der maximalen Rezeptoraktivierung vergleichbar war. Dagegen rief 5 Methylfurmethiodid verglichen mit dem endogenen Liganden ACh zwar eine ca. halbmaximale Rezeptorakti-vierung, aber nur eine äußerst geringe β-Arrestin2 Translokation hervor. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde der Einfluss verschiedener Allostere auf eine ligandenselektive Konformationsänderung des M2 AChR untersucht. Die allosterischen Liganden JK 337 und Seminaph beeinflussten den M2i3-C Sensor signifikant stärker, als das M2i3-N Konstrukt. Dagegen zeigte EHW 477 eine stärkere Beeinflussung der Rezeptorkon-formation des M2i3-N-, als des M2i3-C Sensors. Dies erlaubt die Vermutung, dass JK 337 und Seminaph eine stärkere Bewegung unterhalb von Transmembrandomäne (TM) 6, als unterhalb von TM 5 hervorriefen. Die Ergebnisse für EHW 477 legen nahe, dass TM 5 eine größere Bewegung eingeht, als TM 6. FRET-basierte Untersuchungen der Einflüsse der allosterischen Testliganden auf nachgeschaltete Signalwege ergaben, dass sowohl die Akti-vierung des Gi Proteins, als auch die β-Arrestin2 Translokation selektiv durch einzelne allosterische Liganden beeinflusst werden. Auch ein Zusammenhang zwischen Rezeptor-aktivierung und der Regulation nachgeschalteter Signalwege war erkennbar. Allerdings waren auf Grund der Versuchsbedingungen keine quantitativen Aussagen möglich. Im Folgenden wurden die bitopischen Liganden Hybrid 1 und 2 (H 1, H 2) hinsichtlich ihres Effekts auf die Konformationsänderung des M2 AChR untersucht. Während eine Stimulation mit H 1 vergleichbare FRET-Signale an beiden Sensoren ergab, konnte mit H 2 weder am M2i3-N-, noch an M2i3-C Sensor eine FRET-Änderung detektiert werden. Um den mangeln-den Effekt der Hybridsubstanzen in FRET-mikroskopischen Untersuchungen aufzuklären, wurden verschiedene Ansätze gewählt: Mit kettenverlängerten Derivaten der Hybridsubstanzen konnte in FRET-Messungen eine Änderung des FRET-Signals detektiert werden. Die Entfernung des allosterischen Bausteins führte in FRET-Experimenten zu einer verglichen mit dem endogenen Liganden ACh etwa halbmaximalen Aktivierung beider Sensoren. Dagegen resultierte die Mutation der alloste-rischen Bindestelle in nachfolgenden FRET-Untersuchungen mit H 1 und H 2 in keiner Signaländerung des FRET-Ratio. Diese Beobachtungen führten zu der Annahme, dass die Linkerkette, die orthosterischen und allosterischen Baustein der Hybride miteinander verbindet, zu kurz war um eine gleichzeitige Bindung an die allosterische und orthosterische Bindestelle zu ermöglichen. Ein anderer Erklärungsansatz besteht darin, dass nach Bindung des Orthosters der Kanal zwischen orthosterischer und allosterischer Bindestelle durch die Konformationsänderung des Rezeptors verschlossen wird, weshalb keine dauerhafte, dualsterische Bindung der Hybridsubstanzen an den M2 AChR möglich ist. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit ist es gelungen mittels FRET-Experimenten die Existenz einer ligandenselektiven Rezeptorkonformation des M2 AChR mit allosterischen Liganden nachzuweisen. Darüber hinaus konnte auch ein Bezug zum Auftreten einer funktionellen Selektivität mit allosterischen Liganden hergestellt werden. Die Untersuchung von 19 orthosterischen Liganden hinsichtlich ihres Einflusses auf die Rezeptorkonformation des M2 AChR ergab keinen Hinweis auf eine ligandenselektive Konformationsänderung. Die Betrachtung der orthosterisch-vermittelten Translokation von β-Arrestin2 zeigte, dass zwischen der Effizienz der orthosterischen Testliganden, den M2 AChR zu aktivieren und dem Ausmaß, in dem sie eine β Arrestin2 Translokation induzierten eine direkte Korrelation besteht. Lediglich 5-Methylfurmethiodid rief eine ungleich geringere β-Arrestin2 Translokation hervor, verglichen mit dem Ausmaß an Rezeptoraktivierung. Diese Beobachtung deutet auf die Existenz eines signaling-bias für diesen Liganden hin. Die Untersuchung der dualsterischen Liganden H 1 und 2 bezüglich ihrer Fähigkeit zur Rezeptoraktivierung ergab, dass erst durch eine Verlängerung der Linkerkette, durch die orthosterischer und alloste-rischer Baustein miteinander verbunden sind eine Konformationsänderung des M2 AChR hin zu einer aktiven Konformation erreicht werden kann. Es kann somit angenommen werden, dass in den ursprünglichen Hybridsubstanzen H 1 und H 2 eine zu kurze Linkerkette, durch die keine dualsterische Bindung der Hybride an die allosterische und orthosterische Bindestelle möglich ist, ursächlich für die mangelnde Rezeptoraktivierung des M2 AChR war.
Emodin (1,6,8-trihydroxy-3-methylanthraquinone), an important aglycone found in natural anthraquinone glycosides frequently used in Iaxative drugs, was mutagenic in the Salmonellajmammalian microsome assay (Ames test) with a specificity for strain TA1537. The mutagenic activity was activationdependent with an optimal amount of S9 from Aroclor 1254-treated male Sprague-Dawley rats of 20% in the S9 mix (v jv) for 10 p.g emodin per plate. Heat inactivation of the S9 for 30 min at 60 ° C prevented mutagenicity. The addition of the cytochrome P-448 inhibitor 7,8-benzoflavone (18.5 nmoles per plate) reduced the mutagenic activity of 5.0 p.g emodin per plate to about one third, whereas the P-450 inhibitor metyrapone (up to 1850 nmoles per plate) was without effect. To test whether a metabolite" binds covalently to Salmonella DNA, [10-\(^{14}\)C]emodin was radiosynthesized, large batches of bacteria were incubated with [10-\(^{14}\)C]emodin and DNA was isolated. [G- \(^{3}\)H]Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) was used as a positive control mutagen known to act via DNA binding. DNA obtained after aflatoxin treatment could be purified to constant specific activity. With emodin, the specific activity of DNA did not remain constant after repeated precipitations so that it is unlikely that the mutagenicity of emodin is due to covalent interaction of a metabolite with DNA. The antioxidants vitamin C and E or glutathione did not reduce the mutagenicity. Emodin was also negative with strain TA102. Thus, oxygen radicals are probably not involved. When emodin was incubated with S9 alone for up to 50 h before heat-inactivation of the enzymes and addition of bacteria, the mutagenic activity did not decrease. It is concluded that the mutagenicity of emodin is due to a chemically stable, oxidized metabolite forming physico-chemical associations with DNA, possibly of the intercalative type. In order to check whether an intact mammalian organism might be able to activate emodin to a DNA-binding metabolite, radiolabelled emodin was administered by oral gavage to male SD rats and liver DNA was isolated after 72 h. Very little radioactivity was associated with the DNA. Considering that DNA radioactivity could also be due to sources other than covalent interactions, an upper limit for the · covalent binding index, CBI = (p.moles chemical bound per moles DNA nucleotides)/(mmoles chemical administered per kg body weight) of 0.5 is deduced. This is 104 times below the CBI of AFB1. The demonstration of a lack of covalent interaction with DNA bothin Salmonellaandin rat liver is discussed in terms of a reduced hazard posed by emodin as a mutagenic drug in use in humans.
Die Gruppe der adrenergen Rezeptoren (AR) umfasst neun Rezeptoren (3 alpha1-, 3 alpha2-, 3 beta-AR), die alle durch die physiologischen Liganden Adrenalin und Noradrenalin aktiviert werden können. Eine Subgruppe der AR bilden die drei alpha2-AR alpha2A, alpha2B und alpha2C. Sie können prä- oder postsynaptisch lokalisiert sein. Präsynaptisch lokalisierte alpha2-AR hemmen die Transmitterfreisetzung im Sinne einer negativen Rückkopplung. Die Hauptrolle bei der präsynaptischen Hemmung der Transmitterfreisetzung spielen alpha2-AR vom Subtyp alpha2A. Es lagen zu Beginn dieser Arbeit auch Hinweise vor, daß noch weitere alpha2-Rezeptorsubtypen an dieser Funktion beteiligt sind. Eine eindeutige Zuordnung dieser alpha2-AR zu den Subtypen alpha2B oder alpha2C gelang aber bisher nicht. In dieser Arbeit sollte deshalb die Frage beantwortet werden, welche alpha2-AR neben dem alpha2A-AR an der präsynaptischen Hemmung der Transmitterfreisetzung im zentralen Nervensystem beteiligt sind. Zur Subtypunterscheidung wurden "knockout"-Mäuse verwendet, die nur einen oder zwei alpha2-Rezeptorsubtypen exprimierten. Gehirnschnitte aus dem Neokortex und den Basalganglien dieser Mauslinien wurden mit radoaktiv markiertem Noradrenalin bzw. Dopamin inkubiert. Anschließend wurde in Transmitterfreisetzungsexperimenten mit den so behandelten Gehirnschnitten Konzentrations-Wirkungskurven mit verschiedenen Liganden erstellt. Auf diese Weise konnte gezeigt werden, daß neben den alpha2A-AR auch alpha2C-AR präsynaptisch die Transmitterfreisetzung von Noradrenalin und Dopamin hemmen. In einem weiteren Schritt wurde die Aktivierungs- und Deaktivierungskinetik der alpha2A- und alpha2C-AR im heterologen Expressionssystem untersucht. Hierzu wurden stabile HEK293-Zellinien generiert, die entweder alpha2A- oder alpha2C-AR unterschiedlich stark exprimierten. Diese Zellinien wurden transient mit GIRK-Kanälen transfiziert, um die durch Stimulation mit Noradrenalin resultierenden Kaliumströme mit der "patch-clamp"-Technik zu messen. Dabei ergab sich kein signifikanter Unterschied zwischen alpha2A- und alpha2C-AR bezüglich der Aktivierungskinetik. Alpha2C-AR deaktivierten jedoch deutlich langsamer als alpha2A-AR. Diese Befunde belegen, daß zwei der drei alpha2-AR-Subtypen, alpha2A und alpha2C, als präsynaptische Autorezeptoren (Noradrenalin) bzw. Heterorezeptoren (Dopamin) die Neurotransmission modulieren. Dies könnte in der Zukunft für die Entwicklung neuer, subtypspezifischer Pharmaka von großer Bedeutung sein.
In order to investigate whether the Stimulation of liver DNA synthesis might be used to detect one class of hepatic tumor promoters, the incorporation of orally administered radiolabelled thymidine into liver DNA was detennined in rats and mice 24 h after a single oral gavage of test compounds at various dose Ievels. Three DNA-binding hepatocarcinogens, aflatoxin B1; benzidine and carbon tetrachloride, did not stimulate but rather inhibited DNA synthesis (not for CCla). Four hepatic tumor promoters, clofibrate, DDT, phenobarbital and thioacetamide, gave rise to a Stimulation in a dosedependent manner. Single oral doses between 0.02 and 0.3 mmol/kg were required to double the level of thymidine incorporation into liver DNA (= doubling dose, DD). Differentes between species or sex as obsprved in long-term carcinogenicity studies were reflected by a different stimulation of liver DNA synthesis. In agreement with the bioassay data, aldrin was positive only in male mice (DD = 0.007 mmol/kg) but not in male rats or female mice. 2,3, 7,8-TCDD was positive in male mice (DD = 10\(^{-6}\) mmol/kg) andin female rats (DD = 2 x 10\(^{-6}\) mmol/kg) but not in male rats. The assay was also able to distinguish between structural isomers with different carcinogenicities. [alpha]Hexachlorocyclohexane stimulated Iiver DNA synthesis with a doubling dose of about 0.2 mmol/kg in male rats whereas the [gamma]isomer was ineffective even at l mmol/kg. So far, only one result was inconsistent with carcinogenicity bioassay data. The different carcinogenicity of di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate (negative in rats) and di(2-ethylhe.xyl)phthalate (positive) was not detectable. 8oth plasticizers were positive in.this short-term system with DD's of 0. 7 mmol/kg for DEHA and 0.5 mmol/kg for DEHP. The proposed assay is discussed as an attempt to devise short-term assays for carcinogens not detected by the routine genotoxicity test systems.
The second messenger cyclic AMP (cAMP) is a major intracellular mediator of many hormones and neurotransmitters and regulates a myriad of cell functions, including synaptic plasticity in neurons. Whereas cAMP can freely diffuse in the cytosol, a growing body of evidence suggests the formation of cAMP gradients and microdomains near the sites of cAMP production, where cAMP signals remain apparently confined. The mechanisms responsible for the formation of such microdomains are subject of intensive investigation. The development of optical methods based on fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), which allow a direct observation of cAMP signaling with high temporal and spatial resolution, is playing a fundamental role in elucidating the nature of such microdomains. Here, we will review the optical methods used for monitoring cAMP and protein kinase A (PKA) signaling in living cells, providing some examples of their application in neurons, and will discuss the major hypotheses on the formation of cAMP/PKA microdomains.
The question addressed was whether Stimulation of cell proliferation could be responsible for tumor induction in the torestornach by styrene 7,8-oxide (SO). Male F344 rats were treated for 4 weeks with 0, 137,275, and 550 mglkg SO by p.o. gavage 3 times/week. Positive controls received 0, 0.5, I, and 2% butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) in the diet for 4 weeks. Twenty-four h before termination of the experlment, the rats were implanted s.c. with an osmotic minipump deliverlog S-bromo-2'-deoxyuri· dine (BrdU). Cell proliferation in the forestomach was assessed by immunohistochemistry for BrdU incorporated into DNA. Cell number/mm section length and fraction of replicating cells (labeling Index) were determined in 3 domains of the forestomach, the saccus caecus, the midregion, and the prefundic region. With the exception of the prefundic reglon of the low-dose SO group, a significant increase of the labeling index was found in all regions both with SO and BHA. Rats treated with BHA showed, in addition, a dose-dependent increase in number and size of hyperplastic lesions. This was most pronounced in the prefundic region where carcinomas were reported to be localized. In this region, the number of dividing cells/mm section length was increased up to 17-fold. With SO, only marginal morphological changes were occasionally observed, despite the fact that the respective long-term treatment bad been reported to result in a higher carcinoma incidence than treatment with BHA. It ls concluded that the rate of replicating cells alone, numerically expressed by the labeling Index, is an lnsufficient tool for interpretlog the role of cell division in carcinogenesis. It is postulated that SO and BHA induce forestomach tumors via different mechanisms. While hyperplasia in the prefundic region most likely dominates the carcinogenicity of BHA, a mechanism combining marginal genotoxicity with strong promotion by increased cell proliferation appears to be involved in the tumorigenic action of SO.
An improved 32P-postlabelling assay for detection and quantitation of styrene 7,8-oxide-DNA adducts
(1993)
Using DNA modified with [7-3H]styrene 7,8-oxide (SO) in vitro we have standardized the 32P-postlabelling assay for detecting SO-DNA adducts. Nuclease P 1-enriched adducts were 32P-labelled and purified by high-salt ( 4.0 M ammonium formate, pH 6.1} C1s reverse-phase TLC. After elution from the layer with 2-butoxyethanol:H20 (4:6), adducts were separated by two-dimensional PEI cellulose TLC in non-urea solvents (2.0 M ammonium formate, pH 3.5, and 2.7 M sodium phosphate, pH 5.6). One major, three minor and several trace adducts were detected. The efficiency of the kinase reaction depended on the ATP concentration. Use of standard labelling conditions (['Y· 32P]ATP, <3000 Ci/mmol; <2 Mikromol) resulted in poor ( 4-7%) adduct recovery. An ATP concentration of 40 Mikromol, however, increased the labeJling efficiency by a factor of 5-8 (35-55% based on 3H-SO labelied DNA). The results indicate that the new separation technique is suitable for the relatively polar SO-DNA adducts and that high labelling efficiency can be achieved.
Styrene-7,8-oxide (SO), the main intennediate metabolite of styrene, induces hyperkeratosis and tumors in the forestomach of rats and mice upon chronic administration by gavage. The aim of this study was to investigate wbether DNA binding could be responsible for the carcinogenic effect observed. [7-\(^3\)H]SO was administered by oral gavage in com oll to male CD rats at two dose levels (1.65 or 240 mg/kg). After 4 or 24 h, forestomach, glandular stomach and Uver were exclsed, DNA was isolated and its radioactivity detennined. At the 4 h time polnt, the DNA radioactivity was below the Iimit of detection in the torestornach and the liver. Expressed in the units of the covalent bindlng Index, CBI = (pmol adduct/mol DNA nucleotide)/(mmol cbemical administeredlkg body wt), the DNA-binding potency was below 2.6 and 2.0 respectively. In the glandular stomach at 4 b, and in most 24 b samples, DNA was slightly radiolabeled. Enzymatic degradation of the DNA and separation by HPLC ofthe normal nucleotides sbowed that the DNA rad.ioactivity represented biosynthetic incorporation of radlolabel into newly synthesized DNA. The Iimit of detection of DNA adducts in the glandular stomach was 1.0. In a second experlment, [7-\(^3\)H]SO was administered by i.p. injection to male 86C3Fl rnice. Liver DNA was analyzed after 2 h. No radloactivity was detectable at a Iimit of detection of CBI < 0.6. In agreement with the relatively long half-life of SO in animals, the cbemical reactivity of SO appears to be too low to result in a detectable production of DNA adducts in an in vivo situation. Upon comparison with the DNA-binding of other carcinogens, a purely genotoxic mechanism of tumorigenJc action of SO is unlikely. The observed tumorigenic potency in the forestomach could be the result of strong tumor promotion by high-dose cytotoxicity foUowed by regenerative hyperplasia.
The intrahelical salt bridge between \(E/D^{3.49}\) and \(R^{3.50}\) within the E/DRY motif on helix 3 (H3) and the interhelical hydrogen bonding between the E/DRY and residues on H6 are thought to be critical in stabilizing the class A G protein-coupled receptors in their inactive state. Removal of these interactions is expected to generate constitutively active receptors. This study examines how neutralization of \(E^{3.49/6.30}\) in the thromboxane prostanoid (TP) receptor alters ligand binding, basal, and agonist-induced activity and investigates the molecular mechanisms of G protein activation. We demonstrate here that a panel of full and partial agonists showed an increase in affinity and potency for E129V and E240V mutants. Yet, even augmenting the sensitivity to detect constitutive activity (CA) with overexpression of the receptor or the G protein revealed resistance to an increase in basal activity, while retaining fully the ability to cause agonist-induced signaling. However, direct G protein activation measured through bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) indicates that these mutants more efficiently communicate and/or activate their cognate G proteins. These results suggest the existence of additional constrains governing the shift of TP receptor to its active state, together with an increase propensity of these mutants to agonist-induced signaling, corroborating their definition as superactive mutants. The particular nature of the TP receptor as somehow "resistant" to CA should be examined in the context of its pathophysiological role in the cardiovascular system. Evolutionary forces may have favored regulation mechanisms leading to low basal activity and selected against more highly active phenotypes.
The covalent binding of [3H]aflatoxin B1 (AF) to liver DNA was determined, 6 h after oral administration to male rabbits. A Covalent Binding Index, CBI (flmol AF/mol DNA-P)/(mmol AF/kg b. w.) = 8,500 was found. Pretreatment of rabbits with AF coupled to bovine serum albumin in Freund's adjuvant led to the production of AF-directed antibodies. Administration of [3H]AF to such immunized rabbits resulted in a CJH of only 2,500, i.e., the iiDJ{.lUnization provided a protection by a factor of more than 3. Although this is encouraging evidence for the potential of active immunization against genotoxic carcinogens, a nurober of pointswill have to be clarified, such as the time course for the DNA binding and the question of a possible shift to other target cells.
(6,7-\(^3\)H] Estrone (E) and [6,7-\(^3\)H]estradiol-17ß (E\(_2\)) have been synthesized by reduction of 6-dehydroestrone and 6-dehydroestradiol with tritium gas. Tritiated E and E\(_2\) were administered by oral gavage to female rats and to male and female hamsters on a dose level of about 300 \(\mu\)g/kg (54 mCi/kg). After 8 h, the liver was excised from the rats; liver and kidneys were taken from the hamsters. DNA was purified either directly from an organ homogenate or via chromatin. The radioactivity in the DNA was expressed in the units of the Covalent Binding Index, CBI = (\(\mu\)mol chemical bound per mol Similar considerations can be made for the liver where any true covalent DNA binding must be below a Ievel of 0.01. It is concluded that an observable tumor induction by estrone or estradiol is unlikely to be due to DNA binding. DNA-P)/(mmol chemical administered per kg b.w.). Rat liver DNA isolated via chromatin exhibited the very low values of 0.08 and 0.09 for E and E\(_2\) respectively. The respective figures in hamster liver were 0.08 and 0.11 in females and 0.21 and 0.18 in the males. DNA isolated from the kidney revealed a detectable radioactivity only in the female, with values of 0.03 and 0.05 for E and E\(_2\) respectively. The values for male hamster kidney were < 0.01 for both hormones. The minute radioactivity detectable in the DNA samples does not represent covalent binding to DNA, however, as indicated by' two sets of control experiments. (A) Analysis by HPLC of the nucleosides prepared by enzyme digest of liver DNA isolated directly or via chromatin did not reveal any consistent peak which could have been attributed to a nucleoside-steroid adduct. (B) All DNA radioactivity could be due to protein contaminations, because the specific activity of chromatin protein was determined to be more than 3 ,000 tim es high er than of DNA. The high affinity of the hormone to protein was also demonstrated by in vitro incubations, where it could be shown that the specific activity of DNA and protein was essentially proportional to the concentration of radiolabelled hormone in the organ homogenate, regardless of whether the animal was treated or whether the hormone was added in vitro to the homogenate. Carcinogens acting by covalent DNA binding can be classified according to potency on the basis of the Covalent Binding Index. Values of 10\(^3\)-10\(^4\) have been found for potent, 10\(^2\) for moderate, and 1-10 for weak carcinogens. Since estrone is moderately carcinogenic for the kidney of the male hamster, a CBI of about 100 would be expected. The actually measured Iimit of detection of 0.01 places covalent DNA binding among the highly unlikely mechanisms of action.
Aims
Cardiac atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) participates in the maintenance of arterial blood pressure and intravascular volume homeostasis. The hypovolaemic effects of ANP result from coordinated actions in the kidney and systemic microcirculation. Hence, ANP, via its guanylyl cyclase-A (GC-A) receptor and intracellular cyclic GMP as second messenger, stimulates endothelial albumin permeability. Ultimately, this leads to a shift of plasma fluid into interstitial pools. Here we studied the role of caveolae-mediated transendothelial albumin transport in the hyperpermeability effects of ANP.
Methods and results
Intravital microscopy studies of the mouse cremaster microcirculation showed that ANP stimulates the extravasation of fluorescent albumin from post-capillary venules and causes arteriolar vasodilatation. The hyperpermeability effect was prevented in mice with conditional, endothelial deletion of GC-A (EC GC-A KO) or with deleted caveolin-1 (cav-1), the caveolae scaffold protein. In contrast, the vasodilating effect was preserved. Concomitantly, the acute hypovolaemic action of ANP was abolished in EC GC-A KO and Cav-1−/− mice. In cultured microvascular rat fat pad and mouse lung endothelial cells, ANP stimulated uptake and transendothelial transport of fluorescent albumin without altering endothelial electrical resistance. The stimulatory effect on albumin uptake was prevented in GC-A- or cav-1-deficient pulmonary endothelia. Finally, preparation of caveolin-enriched lipid rafts from mouse lung and western blotting showed that GC-A and cGMP-dependent protein kinase I partly co-localize with Cav-1 in caveolae microdomains.
Conclusion
ANP enhances transendothelial caveolae-mediated albumin transport via its GC-A receptor. This ANP-mediated cross-talk between the heart and the microcirculation is critically involved in the regulation of intravascular volume.
A new cyclic dipeptide, petrocidin A (\(\textbf{1}\)), along with three known compounds—2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid (\(\textbf{2}\)), 2,3-dihydroxybenzamide (\(\textbf{3}\)), and maltol (\(\textbf{4}\))—were isolated from the solid culture of \(Streptomyces\) sp. SBT348. The strain \(Streptomyces\) sp. SBT348 had been prioritized in a strain collection of 64 sponge-associated actinomycetes based on its distinct metabolomic profile using liquid chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The absolute configuration of all α-amino acids was determined by HPLC analysis after derivatization with Marfey’s reagent and comparison with commercially available reference amino acids. Structure elucidation was pursued in the presented study by mass spectrometry and NMR spectral data. Petrocidin A (\(\textbf{1}\)) and 2,3-dihydroxybenzamide (\(\textbf{3}\)) exhibited significant cytotoxicity towards the human promyelocytic HL-60 and the human colon adenocarcinoma HT-29 cell lines. These results demonstrated the potential of sponge-associated actinomycetes for the discovery of novel and pharmacologically active natural products.
Food safety problems are a major hindrance to achieving food security, trade, and healthy living in Africa. Fungi and their secondary metabolites, known as mycotoxins, represent an important concern in this regard. Attempts such as agricultural, storage, and processing practices, and creation of awareness to tackle the menace of fungi and mycotoxins have yielded measurable outcomes especially in developed countries, where there are comprehensive mycotoxin legislations and enforcement schemes. Conversely, most African countries do not have mycotoxin regulatory limits and even when available, are only applied for international trade. Factors such as food insecurity, public ignorance, climate change, poor infrastructure, poor research funding, incorrect prioritization of resources, and nonchalant attitudes that exist among governmental organisations and other stakeholders further complicate the situation. In the present review, we discuss the status of mycotoxin regulation in Africa, with emphasis on the impact of weak mycotoxin legislations and enforcement on African trade, agriculture, and health. Furthermore, we discuss the factors limiting the establishment and control of mycotoxins in the region.
μ‐Opioid receptors (μ‐ORs) play a critical role in the modulation of pain and mediate the effects of the most powerful analgesic drugs. Despite extensive efforts, it remains insufficiently understood how μ‐ORs produce specific effects in living cells. We developed new fluorescent ligands based on the μ‐OR antagonist E‐p‐nitrocinnamoylamino‐dihydrocodeinone (CACO), that display high affinity, long residence time and pronounced selectivity. Using these ligands, we achieved single‐molecule imaging of μ‐ORs on the surface of living cells at physiological expression levels. Our results reveal a high heterogeneity in the diffusion of μ‐ORs, with a relevant immobile fraction. Using a pair of fluorescent ligands of different color, we provide evidence that μ‐ORs interact with each other to form short‐lived homodimers on the plasma membrane. This approach provides a new strategy to investigate μ‐OR pharmacology at single‐molecule level.
Das Spurenelement Selen und Vitamin E reduzieren reaktive Sauerstoff Spezies (ROS). Bei Mangel dieser wichtigen Stoffe erhöht sich die Konzentration an ROS und der oxidative Stress steigt. Unter erhöhten ROS entstehen vermehrt DNA-Schäden und Lipidperoxidationen.
Das ROS Wasserstoffperoxid wird zu Wasser über das Enzym Gluthationperxoidase reduziert. Dessen Aktivität steigert Selen um den Faktor 100-1.000. Das Aktivitätsmaximum des Enzyms liegt bei einer täglichen Selenaufnahme von 60-80 Mikrogramm/Tag. Dadurch wird die Menge an ROS reduziert und der oxidative Stress in der Zelle nimmt ab. Vitamin E fungiert als Radikalfänger. Sein Derivat alpha- Tocopherol besitzt die höchste antioxidative Wirkung und kann Lipidperoxidationen unterbrechen.
Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht Auswirkungen von oxidativem Stress, den ein Mangel von Selen und Vitamin E in der Nahrung bei 6 Monate und 12 Monate alten Tieren auf Leber und Niere verursacht. Der Nachweis von oxidativem Stress erfolgte über sogenannte Hitzeschockproteine HSP70 und Hämoxygenase 1.
HSP 70 wird auch unter physiologischen Bedingungen exprimiert. Es wirkt als Chaperon und ist u.a. für die korrekte Faltung und Stabilisierung von Proteinen zuständig. Die Versuche zeigten, dass im Alter in der Niere die HSP70 Konzentration ansteigt und die Zelle unter vermehrtem oxidativen Stress leidet. Entsprechende Literaturergebnisse wurden bestätigt.
Die Hämoxygenase 1 (HO-1) ist ein Schlüsselenzym, das vermehrt bei oxidativem Stress gebildet wird. Hoch reaktionsfreudige und freie Blutbestandteile katalysiert die Hämoxygenase. Einen Abfall der HO- 1 Konzentration zeigten Untersuchungen von Leber und Niere bei Selen, - Vitamin E Mangel und höherem Lebensalter. Gründe für die verminderte Expression sind noch wenig erforscht.
Die vermehrte Anreicherung von Superoxidanionradikalen wurde in den Geweben von Leber und Niere über Dihydroethidium (DHE) Färbung nachgewiesen. Die Hypothese wurde bestätigt, dass bei Selen, -Vitamin E Mangelnahrung und höherem Alter vermehrter oxidativer Stress entsteht.
Selenmangel begünstigt die Entstehung verschiedener Krankheiten, z.B. Krebs, koronale Herzerkrankung und vor allem die Keshan-Krankheit, die den Herzmuskel befällt. Selen nimmt positiven Einfluss auf Körperfunktionen: Fertilität, embryonalen Entwicklung und Entwicklung eines Neugeborenen. Einige Fragen bleiben ungeklärt: Welche physiologischen Entwicklungsprozesse fördert Selen? Nimmt Selen eine wichtige Funktion bei der Befruchtung der Eizelle ein? Wie beeinflusst Selen die Entwicklung des Gehirns?
Dem Spurenelement Selen kommen offensichtlich neben seiner Bedeutung zur Minderung des oxidativen Stresses noch weitere wichtige Funktionen zu, die bisher wenig untersucht wurden.
ERK1/2 are known key players in the pathophysiology of heart failure, but the members of the ERK cascade, in particular Raf1, can also protect the heart from cell death and ischemic injury. An additional autophosphorylation (ERK1 at Thr208, ERK2 at Thr188) empowers ERK1/2 translocation to the nucleus and phosphorylation of nuclear targets which take part in the development of cardiac hypertrophy. Thereby, targeting this additional phosphorylation is a promising pharmacological approach.
In this thesis, an in silico model of ERK cascade in the cardiomyocyte is introduced. The model is a semi-quantitive model and its behavior was tested with different softwares (SQUAD and CellNetAnalyzer). Different phosphorylation states of ERK1/2 as well as different stimuli can be reproduced. The different types of stimuli include hypertrophic as well as non-hypertrophic stimuli. With the introduced in-silico model time courses and synergistic as well as antagonistic receptor stimuli combinations can be predicted. The simulated time courses were experimentally validated. SQUAD was mainly used to make predictions about time courses and thresholds, whereas CNA was used to analyze steady states and feedback loops.
Furthermore, new targets of ERK1/2 which partially contribute, also in the formation of cardiac hypertrophy, were identified and the most promising of them were illuminated. Important further targets are Caspase 8, GAB2, Mxi-2, SMAD2, FHL2 and SPIN90.
Cardiomyocyte gene expression data sets were analyzed to verify involved components and to find further significantly altered genes after induced hypertrophy with TAC (transverse aortic constriction). Changes in the ultrastructure of the cardiomyocyte are the final result of induced hypertrophy.
In the search for more selective A2-receptor agonists and on the basis that appropriate substitution at C2 is known to impart selectivity for A\(_2\) receptors, 2-alkynyladenosines 2a-d were resynthesized and evaluated in radioligand binding, adenylate cycla.se, and platelet aggregation studies. Binding of [\(^3\)H]NECA to A\(_2\) receptors of rat striatal membranes was inhibited by compounds 2a-d with K\(_i\) values ranging from 2.8 to 16.4 nM. 2-Alkynyladenosines also exhibited high-affmity binding at solubilized A\(_2\) receptors from human platelet membranes. Competition of 2-alkynyladenosines 2a-d for the antagonist radioligand [\(^3\)H]DPCPX and for the agonist [\(^3\)H]CCPA gave K\(_i\) values in the nanomolar range, and the compounds showed moderate A\(_2\) selectivity. In order to improve this selectivity, the correaponding 2-alkynyl derivatives of adenosine-5'-N-ethyluronamide 8a-d were synthesized and tested. A\(_1\) expected, the 5'-N-ethyluronamide derivatives retained the A\(_2\) affinity whereas the A\(_1\) affinity was attenuated, resulting in an up to 10-fold increase in A\(_2\) selectivity. A similar patternwas observed in adenylate cyclase assays andin platelet aggregation studies. A 30- to 45-fold selectivity for platelet A\(_2\) receptors compared to A\(_1\) receptors was found for compounds 8a-c in adenylate cyclase studies.
Adenosine receptor agonists: Synthesis and biological evaluation of 1-deaza analogues of adenosine
(1988)
In a search for more selective A\(_1\) adenosine receptor agonists, N\(^6\)-[(R)-(-)-1-methyl-2-phenethyl]-1-deazaadenosine (1-deaza-R-PIA, 3a), N\(^6\)-cyclopentyl-1-deazaadenosine (1-deazaCPA, 3b), N\(^6\)-cyclohexyl-l-deazaadenosine (1-deazaCHA, Sc), and the corresponding 2-chloro derivatives 2a-c were synthesized from 5,7-dichloro-3-ß-D-ribofuranosyl-3Himidazo[ 4,5-b]pyridine (1). On the other band, N-ethyl-1'-deoxy-1'-(1-deaza-6-amino-9H-purin-9-yl)-ß-D-ribofuranuronamide (1-deazaNECA, 10) was prepared from 7-nitro-3-ß-D-ribofuranosyl-3H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (4), in an attempt to find a more selective A\(_2\) agonist. The activity of all deaza analogues at adenosine receptors has been determined in adenylate cyclase andin radioligand binding studies. 1-DeazaNECA (10) proved tobe a nonselective agonist at both subtypes of the adenosine receptor. It is about 10-fold less active than NECA but clearly more active than the parent compound 1-deazaadenosine as an inhibitor of platelet aggregation and as a stimulator of cyclic AMP accumulation. The N\(^6\)-substituted 1-deazaadenosines largely retain the A\(_1\) agonist activity of their parent compounds, but lose some of their A\(_2\) agonist activity. This results in A\(_1\)-selective compounds, of which N\(^6\)cyclopentyl- 2-chloro-1-deazaadenosine (1-deaza-2-Cl-CPA, 2b) was identified as the most selective agonist at A\(_1\) adenosine receptors so far known. The activity of all 1-deaza analogues confirms that the presence of the nitrogen atom at position 1 of the purine ring is not critical for A\(_1\) receptor mediated adenosine actions.
Neben der Chemotherapie ist heutzutage auch die Hyperthermie-Behandlung eine wichtige Säule der antitumorösen Therapie. Während der sogenannten HIPEC Therapie (Hypertherme intraperitoneale Chemoperfusion) werden die beiden Arten der Therapieformen kombiniert und in der klinischen Praxis erfolgreich angewendet. Genauere Kenntnisse über die zu Grunde liegenden toxikologischen in-vitro Mechanismen könnten zu neuen Möglichkeiten in der klinischen Anwendung führen. In unserer Arbeit untersuchten wir verschiedenen Tumorzelllinien (HT29,CaCo-2,HCT116,HaCaT) in Kombination mit Cisplatin und Hyperthermie mit verschiedenen Methoden, wie zum Beispiel Mikrokerntest, Comet-Assay, Durchflusszytometrie, Vitalitätstest und mikroskopischen Analysen. Unsere Ergebnisse führten uns zu der Hypothese, dass Hyperthermie alleine zu einer sogenannte mitotic catastrophe führt und zum Absterben der Tumorzellen. Im Gegensatz dazu zeigten Tumorzellen, welche mit Cisplatin alleine oder auch in Kombination mit Hyperthermie nicht in die Mitose eintreten und daher nicht durch Apoptose in den Zelltod gehen.
RKIP reguliert Proteinkinasen der Signaltransduktionskaskaden von G Protein-gekoppelten Rezeptoren, der Raf/MEK/ERK-MAPK, des Transkriptionsfaktors NFκB und von GSK3β. Unklar war bisher, wie die spezifische Interaktion von RKIP mit seinen mannigfaltigen Interaktionspartnern ermöglicht und reguliert wird. Raf1 und GRK2 sind die einzigen bekannten direkten Interaktionspartner von RKIP und wurden deshalb gewählt, um die zugrundeliegenden molekularen Mechanismen dieser Interaktion genauer zu untersuchen. In dieser Arbeit wurde gezeigt, dass RKIP nach PKC-vermittelter Phosphorylierung von Serin153 dimerisiert und dass diese Dimerisierung für die RKIP/Raf1-Dissoziation und die RKIP/GRK2-Interaktion essentiell ist. Co-Immunpräzipitationsexperimente mit einer phosphorylierungsdefizienten Mutante zeigten, dass für diese Dimerisierung die Phosphorylierung von beiden RKIP-Molekülen notwendig ist. Als Dimerinteraktionsfläche wurden die Aminosäuren 127-146 von RKIP identifiziert, da das Peptid RKIP127-146 die Dimerisierung von RKIP spezifisch und effizient hemmte. Um die Bedeutung dieser phosphorylierungsinduzierten Dimerisierung von RKIP für seine Interaktion mit Raf1 und GRK2 zu untersuchen, wurden eine phosphomimetische Mutante (RKIPSK153/7EE) und eine Mutante von RKIP generiert, welche bereits unphosphoryliert dimerisiert (RKIP∆143-6). Folgende Ergebnisse legen nahe, dass die Dimerisierung von RKIP für die spezifische Interaktion mit Raf1 bzw. GRK2 entscheidend ist: (i) Die Dimerisierung von phosphoryliertem RKIP ging mit der Dissoziation von RKIP und Raf1 und der Assoziation von RKIP und GRK2 einher; (ii) die Mutanten RKIPSK153/7EE und RKIP∆143-6, die bereits in unstimulierten Zellen eine starke Dimerisierung zeigten, hatten eine höhere Affinität zu GRK2 als zu Raf1; (iii) die Hemmung der RKIP-Dimerisierung interferierte nur mit der RKIP/GKR2- aber nicht mit der RKIP/Raf1-Interaktion; (iv) in vitro und in Mausherzen konnte ein RKIP- und GRK2-immunreaktiver Komplex nachgewiesen werden; (v) Untersuchungen zur RKIP-vermittelten Hemmung der Kinaseaktivität von GRK2 und Raf implizierten, dass dimerisiertes RKIP nur die Aktivität von GRK2, nicht aber von Raf hemmt. Diese Arbeit zeigt, dass die phosphorylierungsinduzierte Dimerisierung von RKIP die spezifische Interaktion von RKIP mit Raf1 und GRK2 koordiniert. Die Aufklärung dieses Mechanismus erweitert unser Verständnis der spezifischen Interaktion von Kinasen mit ihren Regulatorproteinen.
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a widespread food contaminant, with exposure estimated to range from 0.64 to 17.79 ng/kg body weight (bw) for average consumers and from 2.40 to 51.69 ng/kg bw per day for high consumers. Current exposure estimates are, however, associated with considerable uncertainty. While biomarker-based approaches may contribute to improved exposure assessment, there is yet insufficient data on urinary metabolites of OTA and their relation to external dose to allow reliable estimates of daily intake. This study was designed to assess potential species differences in phase II biotransformation in vitro and to establish a correlation between urinary OTA-derived glucuronides and mercapturic acids and external exposure in rats in vivo. In vitro analyses of OTA metabolism using the liver S9 of rats, humans, rabbits and minipigs confirmed formation of an OTA glucuronide but provided no evidence for the formation of OTA-derived mercapturic acids to support their use as biomarkers. Similarly, OTA-derived mercapturic acids were not detected in urine of rats repeatedly dosed with OTA, while indirect analysis using enzymatic hydrolysis of the urine samples prior to LC–MS/MS established a linear relationship between urinary glucuronide excretion and OTA exposure. These results support OTA-derived glucuronides but not mercapturic acids as metabolites suitable for biomonitoring.
Quantitative weight of evidence (QWoE) methodology utilizes detailed scoring sheets to assess the quality/reliability of each publication on toxicity of a chemical and gives numerical scores for quality and observed toxicity. This QWoE-methodology was applied to the reproductive toxicity data on diisononylphthalate (DINP), di-n-hexylphthalate (DnHP), and dicyclohexylphthalate (DCHP) to determine if the scientific evidence for adverse effects meets the requirements for classification as reproductive toxicants. The scores for DINP were compared to those when applying the methodology DCHP and DnHP that have harmonized classifications. Based on the quality/reliability scores, application of the QWoE shows that the three databases are of similar quality; but effect scores differ widely. Application of QWoE to DINP studies resulted in an overall score well below the benchmark required to trigger classification. For DCHP, the QWoE also results in low scores. The high scores from the application of the QWoE methodology to the toxicological data for DnHP represent clear evidence for adverse effects and justify a classification of DnHP as category 1B for both development and fertility. The conclusions on classification based on the QWoE are well supported using a narrative assessment of consistency and biological plausibility.
Decamethylcyclopentasiloxane (D5) is a cyclic siloxane used in the formulation of consumer products as well as an industrial intermediate. A summary of the previous studies on the toxicology of D5 is provided. Toxicokinetic studies with D5 after dermal administration demonstrate a very low uptake of due to rapid evaporation. Following inhalation exposure, exhalation of unchanged D5 and excretion of metabolites with urine are major pathways for clearance in mammals. Due to this rapid clearance by exhalation, the potential for bioaccumulation of D5 is considered unlikely. The available toxicity data on D5 adequately cover the relevant endpoints regarding potential human health hazards. D5 was not DNA reactive or mutagenic in standard in vitro and in vivo test systems. D5 also did not induce developmental and reproductive toxicity in appropriately performed studies. In repeated studies in rats with subacute, subchronic and chronic inhalation exposure, mild effects on the respiratory tract typically seen after inhalation of irritating materials, increases in liver weight (28- and 90-day inhalation studies), and a small increase in the incidence of uterine adenocarcinoma (uterine tumor) in female rats (two-year inhalation chronic bioassay) were observed. The liver effects induced by D5 were consistent with D5 as a weak "phenobarbital-like" inducer of xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes and these effects are considered to be an adaptive response. Mechanistic studies to elucidate the mode-of-action for uterine tumor induction suggest an interaction of D5 with dopamine signal transduction pathways altering the pituitary control of the estrus cycle. The resulting estrogen imbalance may cause the small increase in uterine tumor incidence at the highest D5-exposure concentration over that seen in control rats. A genotoxic mechanism or a direct endocrine activity of D5 is not supported as a mode-of-action to account for the induction of uterine tumors by the available data.
Diabetes, a chronic group of medical disorders characterized byhyperglycemia, has become a global pandemic. Some hormones may influence the course and outcome of diabetes, especially if they potentiate the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). There is a close relationship between thyroid disorders and diabetes. The main objective of this investigation was to find out whether peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) are more prone to DNA damage by triiodothyronine (T\(_3\)) (0.1, 1 and 10 μM) at various stages of progression through diabetes (obese, prediabetics, and type 2 diabetes mellitus—T2DM persons). In addition, some biochemical parameters of oxidative stress (catalase-CAT, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances—TBARS) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were evaluated. PBMCs from prediabetic and diabetic patients exhibited increased sensitivity for T\(_3\) regarding elevated level of DNA damage, inhibition of catalase, and increase of TBARS and LDH. PBMCs from obese patients reacted in the same manner, except for DNA damage. The results of this study should contribute to a better understanding of the role of thyroid hormones in the progression of T2DM.
Viele Membranrezeptoren liegen als über Disulfidbrücken-verbundene Dimere vor. Ein Nachweis der Dimerisierung ist in diesen Fällen methodisch klar und einfach zu erbringen. Für die meisten G-Protein-gekoppelten Rezeptoren dagegen ist weder die Existenz von Di- oder Oligomeren noch deren Funktion eindeutig belegt. Meist wurden Methoden wie Coimmunopräzipitation und Resonanz-Energie-Transfer-Verfahren wie BRET oder FRET verwendet, um Protein-Protein-Interaktionen zu untersuchen. Trotz ihrer hohen Sensitivität besitzen diese Methoden einige Grenzen und können je nach experimentellem Ansatz und Verwendung verschiedener Kontrollen, unterschiedliche Ergebnisse hinsichtlich des Vorliegens einer Protein-Protein-Interaktion liefern. Weder die Stabilität der Interaktion, noch die Fraktion der interagierenden Proteine kann mittels Resonanz-Energie-Transfer-Assays zuverlässig ermittelt werden. Auch die Größe der Komplexe ist nicht oder nur technisch aufwendig bestimmbar. Deshalb wurde in dieser Arbeit eine neue, unabhängige Methode entwickelt, um Rezeptor-Rezeptor-Interaktionen in lebenden Zellen genauer untersuchen zu können. Diese auf „Fluorescence Recovery after Photobleaching“ basierende Mikroskopie-Methode erlaubt die Mobilität von Proteinen zu bestimmen. Um Homointeraktionen zwischen Proteinen messen zu können, müssen zwei Protein-Fraktionen mit unterschiedlicher Mobilität vorliegen. Deshalb wurde eine Rezeptor-Fraktion extrazellulär mit YFP markiert und mit Hilfe polyklonaler Antikörper gegen YFP spezifisch immobilisiert. Die andere Rezeptorfraktion wurde intrazellulär mit CFP oder Cerulean markiert und wurde deshalb nicht von extrazellulären Antikörpern erkannt. So konnten mittels Zwei-Farben-FRAP potenzielle Interaktionen zwischen den immobilisierten extrazellulär-markierten Rezeptoren und den intrazellulär-markierten Rezeptoren durch eine Mobilitätsänderung letzterer detektiert werden. Diese Methode wurde mittels eines monomeren (CD86) und kovalent dimeren (CD28) Rezeptors validiert. Es zeigte sich, dass eine spezifische Immobilisierung extrazellulär-markierter Proteine nur durch polyklonale, nicht aber durch monoklonale Antikörper gegen YFP erreicht werden konnte. Intrazellulär-markierte Proteine wurden hierbei in ihrer Mobilität nicht durch die extrazellulären Antikörper beeinflusst. Bei Immobilisierung des extrazellulär-markierten CD86 war das coexprimierte, intrazellulär-markierte CD86-CFP weiterhin voll mobil. Außerdem zeigte das Monomer CD86 eine vom relativen CFP-YFP-Expressionsverhältnis unabhängige Mobilität. Dieses Ergebnis ließ den Schluss zu, dass extra- und intrazellulär-markiertes CD86 nicht miteinander interagieren und als Monomer vorliegen. Die Mobilität des kovalenten Dimers CD28 war dagegen abhängig vom CFP–YFP-Expressionsverhältnis und stimmte gut mit theoretisch erwarteten Werten für ein Dimer überein. Die Anwendung der Zwei-Farben-Methode zur Untersuchung von Interaktionen zwischen ß1- und ß2-adrenergen Rezeptoren zeigte Unterschiede zwischen beiden Rezeptor-Subtypen. ß1-AR zeigte eine spezifische transiente Interaktion, ß2-AR dagegen lagen als stabile Oligomere höherer Ordnung vor. Die transiente Interaktion zwischen ß1-AR und die stabile Oligomerisierung von ß2-AR wurde nicht nur in HEK 293T-Zellen sondern auch in neonatalen Rattenkardiomyozyten und bei 37 °C beobachtet. Ferner hatte der Aktivierungszustand des jeweiligen Rezeptors keinen Einfluß auf das Ausmaß der Interaktion. Zwischen ß1- und ß2-AR wurde nur eine sehr schwache und instabile Heterointeraktion mittels der Zwei-Farben-FRAP-Methode beobachtet. Um zu überprüfen, ob eine direkte Interaktion zwischen den adrenergen Rezeptoren vorliegt, wurde die BRET-Methode verwendet. Mittels BRET wurde eine direkte Interaktion zwischen ß2-AR festgestellt, jedoch konnte nicht zwischen Dimeren und Oligomeren höherer Ordnung unterschieden werden. Bei ß1-AR fand bei höheren YFP-Rluc-Expressionsverhältnissen ein spezifischer Energietransfer statt. Bei niedrigeren Expressionsverhältnissen lag das Signal jedoch im unspezifischen Bereich. Auch bei Untersuchung der Heterointeraktion zwischen ß1- und ß2-AR konnte keine klare Aussage über eine spezifische Interaktion zwischen beiden Rezeptor-Subtypen getroffen werden.
Protein phosphatases can be classified into at least three major families based on amino acid sequences at their active sites. A newly emerging phosphatase family contains the active site sequence DXDX(T/V), and belongs to the haloacid dehalogenase (HAD) superfamily of hydrolases, a ubiquitous and evolutionarily conserved enzyme family. Although the existence of 58 human HAD enzymes has been predicted by database analysis, our understanding of their biological functions remains rudimentary.By database mining amd phylogenetic analysis of human HAD phosphatases, we have found a marked increase in cell area of spreading cells, as well as accelerated cell spreading onfibronectin. Taken together, we have identified and characterized AUM as a novel member of the emerging family of aspartate-dependent protein tyrosine phosphatases. Our findings implicate AUM as an important regulator of Src-dependent cytoskeletal dynamics during cell adhesion and migration. a previously unidentified enzyme with homology to Chronophin, a cytoskeletal regulatory HAD phosphatase. We have cloned and characterized this novel enzyme and named it AUM,for actin remodeling, ubiquitously expressed, magnesium-dependent HAD phosphatase. By Northern blot, real-time PCR and Western blot analysis, we show that AUM is broadly expressed in all major human and mouse tissues with highest levels found in testis. Using immunohistochemistry, we can show that AUM is specifically expressed in maturing germ cells and that its expression peaks during spermiogenesis. To characterize the substrate preference of AUM, we have conducted an in vitro phosphatase substrate screen with 720 phosphopeptides derived from human phosphorylation sites. AUM exclusively dephosphorylates phosphotyrosine (pTyr)-containing peptides. Furthermore, only 17 pTyr peptides (~2% of all pTyr peptides investigated) acted as AUM substrates, indicating a high degree of substrate specificity. Putative AUM substrates include proteins involved in cytoskeletal dynamics and tyrosine kinase signaling.In accordance with the phosphopeptide screen, phosphatase overlay assays employing whole-cell extracts of pervanadate-treated HeLa cells show that AUM dephosphorylates only a limited number of tyrosyl-phosphorylated proteins.The role of AUM for cellular signaling was investigated in response to epidermal growth factor (EGF) stimulation in a spermatogonial cell line (GC-1 spg). The overexpression of AUM reduces, whereas the RNAi-mediated depletion of endogenous AUM increases EGF inducedtyrosine phosphorylation, including changes in the phosphorylation of the EGF receptor itself. Interestingly, in vitro kinase/phosphatase assays with purified Src and AUM indicate that AUM can activate Src, which in turn phosphorylates and inactivates AUM. Although it is at present unclear how Src and AUM regulate each other, our initial findings suggests that AUM enhances Src kinase activity independently of its phosphatase activity, whereas Src diminishes AUM phosphatase activity in a kinase dependent manner. On a cellular level, AUM-depleted cells are characterized by altered actin cytoskeletal dynamics and adhesion, as indicated by stabilized actin filaments, enlarged focal adhesions,a marked increase in cell area of spreading cells, as well as accelerated cell spreading on fibronectin. Taken together, we have identified and characterized AUM as a novel member of the emerging family of aspartate-dependent protein tyrosine phosphatases. Our findings implicate AUM as an important regulator of Src-dependent cytoskeletal dynamics during cell adhesion and migration.
The aim of this study was to determine whether o-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile ( CS) exhibits any genotoxic activity towards Salmonella or mammalian DNA in vivo. CS was synthesized with a [\(^{14}\)C]-label at the benzylic carbon atom. It was administered i. p. at a dose level of 13 mg/kg (1 mCi/kg) to young adult male rats. Liverand kidney DNA was isolated after 8, 25, and 75 h. The radioactivity was at (liver, 8 and 75 h) or below (all other samples) the limit of detection of 3 dpm. Therefore, a possible binding of CS to DNA is at least 10\(^5\) times lower than that of the strong hepatocarcinogen aflatoxin B1, and 4,000 times lower than that of vinyl chloride. In contrast to this lack of DNA binding, but in agreement with the chemical reactivity of CS, a binding to nuclear proteins could be detected with specific activities ranging between 50 and 121 dpm/mg for liver and between 3 and 41 dpm/mg for kidney. Protein binding could well be responsible for its pronounced cytotoxic effects. Cs was also tested in the Ames Salmonella/microsome assay. Strains TA 1535, TA 1537, TA 1538, TA 98, and TA 100 were used with or without pre-incubation. Only with strain TA 100 and only without pre-incubation, a doubling of the number of revertants was detectable at the highest dose Ievels used, 1,000 and 2,000 !lg CS per plate. With pre-incubation of TA 100 with CS, a slight increase of the number of revertants was seen at 100 and 500 !lg per plate, and a subsequent fall below control values at 1,000 J.tg. A check for the number of surviving bacteria revealed a strong bacteriotoxicity of the higher doses of es so that the calculated mutation frequencies, i.e., the oumber of revertants per number of surviving bacteria, increased with doses up to 500 !J.g. This toxicity could be counteracted in part by the addition of increasing amounts of rat liver microsomes. In the view of these results, and taking into account the rare and low exposure of man, it is concluded that CS will not create a risk for the induction of point mutations or of carcinogenic processes mediated by DNA binding.
Investigation of the Potential for Binding of Di(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate (DEHP) and Di(2- ethylhexyl) Adipate (DEHA) to Liver DNA in Vivo. VON DÄNIKEN, A., LUTZ, W. K., JÄCKH, R., AND ScHLATTER, C. (1984). Toxico/. App/. Pharmaco/. 73, 373-387. It was the aim oftbis investigation to determine whether covalent binding of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) to rat liver DNA and of di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA) to mouse liver DNA could be a mechanism of action contributing to the observed induction of liver tumors after lifetime feeding of the respective rodent species with high doses of DEHP and DEHA. For this purpose, DEHP and DEHA radiolabeled in different parts of the molecule were administered orally to female rats and mice, respectively, with or witbout pretreatment for 4 weeks with 1% unlabeled compound in the diet. Liver DNA was isolated after 16 hr and analyzed for radioactivity. The data were converted to a covalent binding index, CBI = (micromoles of substance bound per mole of DNA nucleotides)/(millimoles of substance applied per kilogram body weight), in order to allow a quantitative comparison also with other carcinogens and noncarcinogens. Administration of [\(^{14}\)H]carboxylate-labeled DEHP to rats resulted in no measurable DNA radioactivity. The Iimit of detection, CBI < 0.02 was about 100 times below the CBI of compounds where an observable tumor-inducing potential could be due to genotoxicity. With [\(^{14}\)C]- and [\(^{3}\)H]DEHP labeled in the alcohol moiety, radioactivity was clearly measurable in rat liver DNA. HPLC analysis of enzyme-degraded or acid-hydrolyzed DNA revealed that the natural nucleosides or purine bases were radiolabeled whereas no radioactivity was detectable in those fractions where tbe carcinogenmodified nucleoside or base adducts are expected. The respective Iimits of detection were at 0.07 and 0.04 CBI units for the \(^{14}\)C and \(^{3}\)H Iabels, respectively. The experiments with [\(^{14}\)C]- and [\(^{3}\)H]DEHA, labeled in the alcobol moiety and administered to mice, revealed aminute radioactivity of <50 dpm/mg liver DNA, too little to allow a nucleoside analysis to determine that fraction of the radioactivity which bad been incorporated via biosynthesis. Expressed in the CBI units, values of 0.05 to 0.15 for \(^{14}\)C and 0.01 to 0.12 for \(^{3}\)H resulted. Determination of the level· of \(^{14}\)C02 expiration revealed a linear correlation with the speciftc activity of DNA. Experiments with 2-ethyl[ 1-\(^{14}\)C]hexanol perfonned with both rats and mice allowed the conclusion tbat most if not all DEHA radioactivity in mouse liver DNA was due to biosynthetic incorporation. A maximum possible true DNA binding by DEHA must be below CBI 0.01. Pretreatment of the animals witb unlabeled compound bad no effect on the DNA radioactivities in either species. The present negative data, in conjunction witb other negative short-term tests for mutagenicity, strongly indicate that covalent interaction with DNA is highly unlikely to be the mode of tumorigenic action of DEHP and DEHA in rodents.
Lack of covalent binding to rat liver DNA of the hypolipidemic drugs clofibrate and fenofibrate
(1981)
\(^{14}\)C-Labelled clofibric acid and fenofibric acid were administered p.o. to 200 g male and female rats. After 10 h, liver nuclear DNA and protein were isolated and the radioactivity was determined. Binding to protein was clearly measurable whereas no binding to DNA could be detected from any drug. A comparison of the Iimit of detection of such DNA binding with well-known chemical carcinogens revealed that the known hepatocarcinogenicity of clofibrate cannot be based upon an initiating, DNA damaging, mode of action but must be due to other, nongenotoxic, mechanisms such as peroxisome proliferation, hepatomegaly, or cytotoxicity due to protein binding. The risk assessment in man and the interpretation of the carcinogenicity data for rodents are discussed.
RBM20 mutations account for 3 % of genetic cardiomypathies and manifest with high penetrance and arrhythmogenic effects. Numerous mutations in the conserved RS domain have been described as causing dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), whereas a particular mutation (p.R634L) drives development of a different cardiac phenotype: left-ventricular non-compaction cardiomyopathy. We generated a mutation-induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) line in which the RBM20-LVNC mutation p.R634L was introduced into a DCM patient line with rescued RBM20-p.R634W mutation. These DCM-634L-iPSC can be differentiated into functional cardiomyocytes to test whether this RBM20 mutation induces development of the LVNC phenotype within the genetic context of a DCM patient.
The superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) regulates numerous physiological and pathophysiological processes. Hence GPCRs are of significant interest for pharmacological therapy. Embedded into cytoplasmic membranes, GPCRs represent the core of large signaling complexes, which are critical for transduction of exogenous stimuli towards activation of downstream signaling pathways. As a member of the GPCR family B, the parathyroid hormone receptor (PTHR) activates adenylyl cyclases, phospholipases C β as well as mitogen-activated protein kinase-dependent signaling pathways, thereby mediating endocrine and paracrine effects of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and parathyroid hormone-related peptide (PTHrP), respectively. This regulates, calcium homeostasis, bone metabolism and bone development. Paradoxically, PTH is able to induce both catabolic and anabolic bone metabolism. The anabolic effect of PTH is successfully applied in the therapy of severe osteoporosis. Domination of anabolic or catabolic bone-metabolism is entailed by temporal and cell-type specific determinants. The molecular bases are presumably differential arrangements of adaptor proteins within large signaling complexes that may lead to differential activation of signaling pathways, thereby regulating physiological effects. The molecular mechanisms are largely unclear; thus, there is significant interest in revealing a better understanding of PTHR-related adaptor proteins. To identify novel adaptor proteins which direct PTHR signaling pathways, a proteomic screening approach was developed. In this screening, vav2, a guanine-nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) for small GTPases which regulates cytoskeleton reorganization, was found to interact with intracellular domains of PTHR. Evidence is provided that vav2 impairs PTH-mediated phospholipase C β (PLCβ) signaling pathways by competitive interactions with G protein αq subunits. Vice versa, PTH was shown to regulate phosphorylation and subsequent GEF activity of vav2. These findings may thus shed new light on the molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of PTH on bone metabolism by PLC-signaling, cell migration and cytoskeleton organization. In addition to the understanding of intracellular molecular signaling processes, screening for ligands is a fundamental and demanding prerequisite for modern drug development. To this end, ligand binding assays represent a fundamental technique. As a substitution for expensive and potentially harmful radioligand binding, fluorescence-based ligand-binding assays for PTHR were developed in this work. Based on time-resolved fluorescence, several assay variants were established to facilitate drug development for the PTHR.