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The second messenger cyclic AMP (cAMP) is a major intracellular mediator of many hormones and neurotransmitters and regulates a myriad of cell functions, including synaptic plasticity in neurons. Whereas cAMP can freely diffuse in the cytosol, a growing body of evidence suggests the formation of cAMP gradients and microdomains near the sites of cAMP production, where cAMP signals remain apparently confined. The mechanisms responsible for the formation of such microdomains are subject of intensive investigation. The development of optical methods based on fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), which allow a direct observation of cAMP signaling with high temporal and spatial resolution, is playing a fundamental role in elucidating the nature of such microdomains. Here, we will review the optical methods used for monitoring cAMP and protein kinase A (PKA) signaling in living cells, providing some examples of their application in neurons, and will discuss the major hypotheses on the formation of cAMP/PKA microdomains.
INTRODUCTION: Recently, we could show that angiotensin II, the reactive peptide of the blood pressure-regulating renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system, causes the formation of reactive oxygen species and DNA damage in kidneys and hearts of hypertensive mice. To further investigate on the one hand the mechanism of DNA damage caused by angiotensin II, and on the other hand possible intervention strategies against end-organ damage, the effects of substances interfering with the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system on angiotensin II-induced genomic damage were studied.
METHODS: In C57BL/6-mice, hypertension was induced by infusion of 600 ng/kg • min angiotensin II. The animals were additionally treated with the angiotensin II type 1 receptor blocker candesartan, the mineralocorticoid receptor blocker eplerenone and the antioxidant tempol. DNA damage and the activation of transcription factors were studied by immunohistochemistry and protein expression analysis.
RESULTS: Administration of angiotensin II led to a significant increase of blood pressure, decreased only by candesartan. In kidneys and hearts of angiotensin II-treated animals, significant oxidative stress could be detected (1.5-fold over control). The redox-sensitive transcription factors Nrf2 and NF-κB were activated in the kidney by angiotensin II-treatment (4- and 3-fold over control, respectively) and reduced by all interventions. In kidneys and hearts an increase of DNA damage (3- and 2-fold over control, respectively) and of DNA repair (3-fold over control) was found. These effects were ameliorated by all interventions in both organs. Consistently, candesartan and tempol were more effective than eplerenone.
CONCLUSION: Angiotensin II-induced DNA damage is caused by angiotensin II type 1 receptor-mediated formation of oxidative stress in vivo. The angiotensin II-mediated physiological increase of aldosterone adds to the DNA-damaging effects. Blocking angiotensin II and mineralocorticoid receptors therefore has beneficial effects on end-organ damage independent of blood pressure normalization.
Spatially restricting cAMP production to discrete subcellular locations permits selective regulation of specific functional responses. But exactly where and how cAMP signaling is confined is not fully understood. Different receptors and adenylyl cyclase isoforms responsible for cAMP production are not uniformly distributed between lipid raft and non-lipid raft domains of the plasma membrane. We sought to determine the role that these membrane domains play in organizing cAMP responses in HEK293 cells. The freely diffusible FRET-based biosensor Epac2-camps was used to measure global cAMP responses, while versions of the probe targeted to lipid raft (Epac2-MyrPalm) and non-raft (Epac2-CAAX) domains were used to monitor local cAMP production near the plasma membrane. Disruption of lipid rafts by cholesterol depletion selectively altered cAMP responses produced by raft-associated receptors. The results indicate that receptors associated with lipid raft as well as non-lipid raft domains can contribute to global cAMP responses. In addition, basal cAMP activity was found to be significantly higher in non-raft domains. This was supported by the fact that pharmacologic inhibition of adenylyl cyclase activity reduced basal cAMP activity detected by Epac2-CAAX but not Epac2-MyrPalm or Epac2-camps. Responses detected by Epac2-CAAX were also more sensitive to direct stimulation of adenylyl cyclase activity, but less sensitive to inhibition of phosphodiesterase activity. Quantitative modeling was used to demonstrate that differences in adenylyl cyclase and phosphodiesterase activities are necessary but not sufficient to explain compartmentation of cAMP associated with different microdomains of the plasma membrane.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden immortalisierte humane Keratinozyten (HaCaT-Zelllinie) über eine Dauer von 24 Stunden mit Terahertzstrahlung der Frequenz 0,106 THz und einer Leistungsflussdichte von 2 mW/cm² behandelt und anschließend mittels „cytokinesis-block micronucleus cytome assay“ ausgewertet. Ferner wurden Proben der gleichen Zelllinie über einen Zeitraum von 24 Stunden Temperaturen zwischen 37 °C und 42 °C ausgesetzt und zum einen auf Hinweise für Gentoxizität mit Hilfe des Mikrokerntests untersucht und zum anderen mittels Western Blot die Expressionsrate von Hitzeschockproteinen der 70 kDa Familie bestimmt.
Die der Terahertzstrahlung ausgesetzten Zellen zeigten gegenüber den Kontrollen keine signifikanten Veränderungen der Marker für chromosomale Aberrationen oder der Zellteilung. Die der erhöhten Temperatur ausgesetzten Zellen zeigten einen signifikanten Anstieg der Mikrokernraten und weiterer Marker für Gentoxizität sowie eine damit korrelierende Zunahme der synthetisierten Proteinmenge der Hsp70 Proteine im Rahmen der Hitzeschockreaktion.
Adenosin steuert seine physiologische Funktionen über die vier G-Protein gekoppelten Adenosinrezeptoren A1, A2A, A2B und A3 und kann enormen Einfluss auf die Zellphysiologie und das Immunsystem haben. Hohe Adenosinkonzentrationen in Tumorgeweben haben das Interesse vieler Forschungsgruppen geweckt und den Nachweis von AR und dessen tumorfördernde sowie -hemmende Wirkung auf diverse Krebszellen nach sich gezogen. Melanome sind für 90% der letal ausgehenden Hautkrebsformen verantwortlich, da bereits kleinste Formen metastasieren können und vielmals eine rein chirurgische Therapie keine Heilung verspricht. Bei ungünstiger Prognose schränken adjuvante und systemische Therapieergänzungen die Lebensqualität erheblich ein. Auf der Suche nach gezielteren und schonenderen Therapieansätzen gilt es, die Rolle des Adenosins im Tumorgeschehen weiter aufzuklären, was den Nachweis und die Charakterisierung von AR und deren rezeptorspezifisch-gekoppelte Effekte voraussetzt. Daher sollten in der hier vorliegenden Arbeit die fünf humanen Melanomzelllinien A375, Brown, MV3, SK MEL23 und MEL2A auf die Expression von AR untersucht werden.
Zu Beginn wurden die Zellen mit Hilfe von Bindungsexperimenten unter Einsatz radioaktiv markierter Liganden ([3H]HEMADO, [3H]CCPA, [3H]NECA und [3H]ZM 241385) auf das Vorliegen der vier AR-Subtypen untersucht. A1- und A3-AR wurden nach Bindungsstudien mit [3H]CCPA bzw. [3H]HEMADO ausgeschlossen und nicht weiter untersucht. Durch Bindungsstudien mit [3H]ZM 241385 konnten in den Zellen Brown, MV3, SK-MEL23 und MEL2A geringe Mengen von A2B-Rezeptoren detektiert werden.
Es folgten funktionelle Untersuchungen zur Stimulation der AC mit den Liganden NECA und CGS 21680 unter besonderem Blick auf die Differenzierung zwischen einer A2A- oder A2B vermittelten Stimulation. Ein NECA vermittelter Anstieg des c[32P]AMP im AC-Versuch bestätigte die Anwesenheit von A2B-Rezeptoren in den Zellen A375, Brown, MV3 und SK-MEL23. Durch CGS 21680 kam es hingegen zu keiner AC-Stimulation, was eine A2A-AR-Beteiligung ausschloss. Zur Bestätigung einer A2B gekoppelten AC-Aktivität wurde zum Abschluss der Versuche die Wirkung von drei selektiven Antagonisten (DPCPX, SCH 58261 und MRE 3008 F20) auf ein NECA induziertes cAMP-Signal überprüft. Mit den drei Antagonisten konnte an den Zelllinien A375, Brown und MV3 die für A2B-AR zu erwartende Wirkung nachgewiesen und damit die Expression von A2B-AR in diesen Zellen bestätigt werden.
Die gewonnenen Daten können als Ausgangspunkt weiterführender Untersuchungen genutzt werden, um die Rolle von AR in Krebszellen besser zu verstehen. Sie könnten als Grundlage für die Suche nach potenziellen Angriffspunkten für neue Therapieansätze dienen und so einen Beitrag für Fortschritte in der Behandlung von Tumoren leisten.
Der Nachweis von oxidativen Stressmarkern hat bei der Untersuchung von Krankheiten wie Diabetes, Krebs und Hypertonie an großer Bedeutung gewonnen. Vor allem 8-Oxo-2’-desoxyguanosin (8-oxodG) wird gezielt mit verschiedenen Methoden gemessen und als Marker für oxidativen Stress herangezogen. Daneben haben 8 Oxoguanin (8-oxoGua), als Produkt aus der Basenexzisionsreparatur der DNA, sowie 8-Oxoguanosin (8-oxoGuo), als Biomarker für oxidativ geschädigte RNA, bisher weniger Aufmerksamkeit bekommen. Das Renin-Angiotensin Aldosteron System (RAAS) spielt eine wichtige Rolle in der Regulierung des Blutdrucks. Im Falle einer Hypertonie werden Angiotensin II (Ang II) und Aldosteron (Aldo) über einen langen Zeitraum in erhöhter Konzentration ausgeschüttet. Dieser Umstand bewirkt eine nicht physiologische Wirkung der Hormone des RAAS, welche zu einer Induktion von oxidativem Stress führt. Die Zielsetzung dieser Arbeit ist es, die oxidative Schädigung, ausgelöst durch Ang II und Aldo, in der DNA und der RNA in vitro und in vivo nachzuweisen und dabei speziell den Biomarker 8-oxodG zu untersuchen.
In-vitro-Experimente wurden mit LLC PK1-Zellen, einer Schweinenierenzelllinie, durchgeführt. Ang II und Aldo lösten einen dosisabhängigen Anstieg der DNA Schäden in LLC PK1 Zellen aus. Eine Zeitabhängigkeit wurde für die ersten 30 Minuten gezeigt. Für die restliche Zeit (4 h) blieb der nachgewiesene DNA Schaden konstant. Der FPG Comet-Assay und die immunzytochemische Färbung zeigten jeweils eine signifikante Zunahme von 8-oxodG in LLC-PK1-Zellen an, während die HPLC MS/MS Messung nur geringe Veränderungen nachwies. Das FPG Enzym erkennt neben 8-oxodG auch andere oxidierte Purine und sorgte so für eine Überbestimmung des DNA-Schadens. Bei der immunzytochemischen Färbung entsteht die Überbestimmung durch Kreuzreaktionen des 8 oxodG Antikörpers mit oxidierten Strukturen in der DNA. Der Vorteil beider Analysemethoden ist die direkte Messung von Schädigungen in der Zelle, während die HPLC-MS/MS eine Isolierung der Nukleinsäuren voraussetzt. Bei diesem Schritt kann es zur Oxidation der Marker für oxidativen Stress kommen, welche einen genauen Nachweis erschwert.
In vivo-Versuche hatten zum Ziel, die oxidativen Stressmarker 8-oxoGua, 8-oxodG und 8-oxoGuo im Urin nachzuweisen. Die Behandlung der C57BL/6-Mäuse und Sprague Dawley-Ratten (SD-Ratten) mit den Hormonen des RAAS zeigten einen Anstieg des Blutdrucks, erhöhte DNA Schäden durch oxidativen Stress sowie erhöhte Exkretionsraten der oxidativen Stressmarker. Durch eine Inhibierung des Angiotensin II-Typ1- oder Mineralkortikoidrezeptors sowie die Mutation des Gens AT1a konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Schädigungen unabhängig vom Blutdruck sind. Zudem konnte gezeigt werden, dass neben NOX4 auch andere NADPH Oxidasen für den oxidativen Stress verantwortlich sein müssen. Eine Aktivierung des Nrf2 Signalweges in den SD-Ratten hat Einfluss auf die Wirkung von Aldo.
Die Exkretionsrate der oxidativen Biomarker im 20-h-Urin der behandelten Tiere zeigen, wie sich das Gleichgewicht zwischen DNA-Reparatur und oxidativem Stress verändert. Da 80 % der DNA in RNA umgeschrieben werden, ist der Nachweis von 8 oxoGuo in den Fokus gerückt. In der praktischen Anwendung kann mit der Messung von 8 oxodG und 8-oxoGuo ein Krankheits- oder Heilungsprozess auf nicht invasive Weise verfolgt werden. Der Nachweis von 8-oxodG und 8-oxoGuo in den Nukleinsäuren stellt einen Einstieg für die Grundlagenforschung dar, da sie nur eine Momentaufnahme der Nukleinsäureschädigung in der Zelle zeigen. Meist findet eine Überbestimmung, ausgelöst durch die Messmethode, statt. In Gewebeproben kann eine Unterbestimmung vorliegen, falls nicht alle Zelltypen vom oxidativen Stress betroffen sind. Daher sollte es ein vorrangiges Ziel sein, ein stabileres Oxidationsprodukt des Guanins nachzuweisen, um das Gleichgewicht der DNA-Oxidation und Reparatur besser zu verstehen.
Reaktive Sauerstoffradikale spielen eine große Rolle bei der Entstehung von Karzinomen, im Alterungsprozess und bei kardiovaskulären Erkrankungen (Valko et al., 2007). Solche Sauerstoffradikale können unter anderem durch die NADPH-Oxidase gebildet werden (Finkel and Holbrook, 2000).
Ziel der Arbeit war es, die Rolle von ROS im Alterungsprozess und bei Bluthochdruck aufzuzeigen. Dafür wurden zwei Tiermodelle, eines mit einer geringen ROS-Konzentration und eines mit einer hohen ROS-Konzentration, verwendet. Zum einen handelt es sich um ein p47-Knockout-Mausmodell für die geringere ROS-Konzentration, im Vergleich zu alten und jungen Wildtyp-Tieren. Für die Rolle von ROS bei der Alterung wurden junge mit alten Wildtyp-Tieren verglichen. Um die Rolle der NOX2 in den ROS-Spiegeln der Organe zu ermitteln wurden gleichaltrige Wildtyp- mit p47-Knockout-Tieren verglichen. Zum anderen nutzten wir ein ren2-Tiermodell für die hohe ROS-Konzentration. Hierbei handelt es sich um ein Bluthochdruckmodell, in dem der Blutdruck mit Medikamenten normalisiert werden kann. Die Tiere wurden daher mit Ramipril (ACE-Inhibitor), Apocynin (NADPH-Oxidase-Inhibitor) und Tempol (Radikalfänger) behandelt. Als Maß für die ROS-Konzentration wurden die Superoxidionenspiegel mithilfe einer Dihydroethidium-Färbung ermittelt. Die DNA-Doppelstrangbrüche wurden mit einer γH2AX-Antikörper-Färbung nachgewiesen und die Expression von Sirtuin1 und Hsp70, welche als Anti-Aging Proteine bekannt sind, mittels Western Blot bestimmt.
Kardiomyopathien sind Erkrankungen des Herzmuskels, die mit einer kardialen Funktionsstörung einhergehen. Formen, die ohne erkennbare Ursache zu einer progredienten Dilatation und Reduktion der Kontraktilität des linken Ventrikels führen, werden als idiopathische dilatative Kardiomyopathie (DCM) bezeichnet. Sie ist der Hauptgrund für schwere Herzinsuffizienz und die damit assoziierten Einschränkungen der Lebensqualität bei jungen Erwachsenen. Neben der beeinträchtigten kardialen Funktion weisen diese Patienten oftmals auch Veränderungen im Bereich der humoralen und zellulären Immunität auf. Ein Teil der Patienten entwickelt Autoantikörper, die sich gegen den kardialen β1-adrenergen Rezeptor richten und ihn ähnlich wie der natürliche Ligand Adrenalin aktivieren. Hieraus resultiert eine chronische Überstimulation des Rezeptors, die über eine initiale Hypertrophie dann zu einer eingeschränkten Pumpfunktion führt.
Nachdem sich die Therapie der Antikörper-vermittelten Immunkardiomyopathie bisher auf die Behandlung der Herzinsuffizienz und die Kontrolle der Herz-insuffizienzsymptome beschränkt, könnten β1-ECII-homologe Peptide als Antikörper-Fänger bei Antikörper-positiven Patienten nun einen kausalen Therapieansatz darstellen. In diesem Zusammenhang wurden ein aus 25 Aminosäuren bestehendes zyklisches Peptid, eine aus 18 Aminosäuren bestehende Zyklopeptid-Mutante und ihre jeweiligen linearen Äquivalente im Rattenmodell auf Antikörper-neutralisierende Effekte und potentielle therapeutische Wirksamkeit getestet. Das Rattenmodell ist hierfür besonders geeignet, da die Aminosäuresequenz der funktionell wichtigen zweiten extrazellulären Domäne des β1-adrenergen Rezeptors (β1-ECII) bei Mensch und Ratte absolut identisch ist.
Auf immunologischer Ebene konnte der Titer der krankheitsinduzierenden β1-ECII-Antikörper bereits nach der ersten Applikation zyklischer Peptide relevant gesenkt werden und nahm im weiteren Verlauf der Behandlung kontinuierlich ab. Nach Zyklopeptidgabe kam es am Herzen zu einer Reduktion des linksventrikulären Durchmessers und zu einer fast vollständigen Normalisierung der anatomischen Proportionen. Auf die Morphologie der Myozyten selbst und auch den Kollagengehalt des Gewebes hatte die Zyklopeptidtherapie keinen wesentlichen Einfluss. Die funktionellen Eigenschaften des Herzens ließen sich durch die Neutralisation stimulatorischer β1-ECII-Antikörper mittels intravenöser Zyklopeptidapplikation deutlich verbessern: Die Verkürzungsfraktion des linken Ventrikels und der Herzindex als Parameter für die kardiale Leistungsfähigkeit konnten durch die Behandlung wieder weitgehend normalisiert werden.
Diese im Tiermodell erzielten Ergebnisse lassen einen therapeutischen Effekt der Zyklopeptide vermuten. Der Ansatz einer spezifisch gegen Antikörper gerichteten Therapie zur Behandlung von Patienten mit β1-Antikörper-positiver Herzinsuffizienz erscheint daher vielversprechend.
Adenosinrezeptoren werden auf nahezu allen Körperzellen exprimiert und übernehmen dort vielfältige und wichtige Funktionen. Auch auf diversen Tumorzelllinien konnten bereits Adenosinrezeptoren nachgewiesen und – je nach Subtyp – mit Pro- oder Anti-tumor-Effekten in Zusammenhang gebracht werden.
In dieser Arbeit wurden Gebärmutterhalskrebszellen sowie endometriale und triple-negative Brustkrebszellen auf Expression und mögliche Funktionen von Adenosinrezep-toren untersucht. Da spezifische Antikörper bis heute nicht verfügbar sind, wurde ein pharmakologischer Ansatz mit subtypspezifischen Agonisten und Antagonisten gewählt.
In Radioliganden-Bindungsassays, konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass sich auf der Zer-vixkarzinom-Zelllinie SiHa und der Brustkrebs-Zelllinie HCC1806 Adenosinrezeptoren des Subtyps A1 befinden. Die endometrialen Krebszelllinien Ishikawa und HEC-1-A exprimieren Rezeptoren vom Subtyp A1 und A2A. A3-Adenosinrezeptoren wurden auf keiner der untersuchten Zelllinien gefunden.
Der Nachweis von A2B-Rezeptoren kann mit dem Radioliganden-Bindungsassay nicht erbracht werden, da bislang kein Radioligand bekannt ist, der eine ausreichende Affini-tät besitzt, um diesen Subtyp zweifelsfrei nachweisen zu können.
Obwohl die Mehrheit der untersuchten Zelllinien Adenosinrezeptoren exprimiert, konnte ein signifikanter Effekt auf die Adenylatcyclase bei Stimulation der auf den Zellen vorhandenen Adenosinrezeptoren nur bei den HEC-1-A-Zellen festgestellt werden. Auch auf funktionelle A2B-Rezeptoren fand sich im Adenylatcyclaseassy kein Hinweis.
Im durchgeführten Kristallviolettassay zeigte sich ein proapoptotischer Effekt auf Ishi-kawa- und HEC-1-A-Zellen bei hohen Adenosin-Konzentrationen (100 µM). Die im BrdU-Assay gemessene Proliferationsrate hingegen änderte sich nach Vorbehandlung mit Adenosin nicht. Das metabolisch stabilere NECA (in Kombination mit ADA) hatte im Kristallviolettassay einen stärkeren Einfluss auf die Apoptoserate der jeweiligen Zelllinie als Adenosin und auch im BrdU-Assay sank die Menge an inkorporiertem BrdU. Ein Synergismus zwischen Stimulation von Adenosinrezeptoren und diversen Todesliganden bzw. Chemotherapeutika konnte nicht nachgewiesen werden.
Freies extrazelluläres Adenosin kann auch aus dem Abbau von ATP generiert werden, wenn Zellen die Ektonukleotidasen CD39 und CD73 exprimieren. Aufgrund der im-munsuppressiven Wirkung von Adenosin können diese Enzyme T-Zell- und NK-Zellantworten im Mikromilieu von Tumoren hemmen. Die durchflusszytometrische Analyse von HEC-1-A- und Ishikawa-Zellen zeigte zwar, dass die Expression von CD39 und CD73 nach Stimulation der Adenosinrezeptoren unverändert blieb. Die Ex-pression von Enzymen, lässt aber vermuten, dass die Zellen in vivo von Adenosin profi-tieren könnten. Angesichts der in vitro Daten, die allenfalls einen wachstumshemmen-den Effekt von Adenosin zeigten, könnte die vorrangige Wirkung von Adenosin im Tumormikromilieu tatsächlich auf der Inhibition von Immunantworten beruhen. Mög-licherweise würden die Rezeptoren dann in erster Linie als Sensoren dienen.
Weitere Forschungsarbeit wird helfen, die Rolle der Adenosinrezeptoren im Tumorge-schehen vollständig zu verstehen und möglicherweise für die Krebstherapie nutzbar zu machen.
Wben irradiated at 360 nm, furocoumarins with a hydroperoxide group in a side chain effciently give rise to a type of DNA damage that can best be explained by a photoinduced generation of hydroxyl radicals from the excited pbotosensitizers. The observed DNA damage profiles, i.e. the ratios of single-strand breaks, sites of base loss (AP sites) and base modifications sensitive to fonnamidopyrimidine-DNA glycosylase (FPG protein) and endonuclease m, are similar to the DNA damage profile produced by hydroxyl radicals generated by lonizing radiation or by xanthine and xanthine oxidase in the presence of Fe(III)-EDTA. No such damage is observed with the corresponding furocoumarin alcohols or in the absence of near-UV radiation. The damage caused by the photo-excited hydroperoxides is not influenced by superoxide dismutase (SOD) or catalase or by D2O as solvent. The presence of t-butanol, however, reduces both the formation of single-strand breaks and of base odifications sensitive to FPG protein. The cytotoxicity caused by one of the hydroperoxides in L5178Y mome lymphoma cells is found to be dependent on the near-UV irradiation and to be much higher than that of the corresponding alcohol. Therefore the new type of photoinduced damage occurs inside cells. Intercalating photosensitizers with an attached hydroperoxide group might represent a novel and versatile class of DNA damaging agents, e.g. for phototherapy.
No abstract available.
Diethylstilbestrol alters the morphology and calcium levels of growth cones of PC12 cells in vitro
(1993)
Diethylstilbestrol (DES) is a synthetic estrogen with carcinogenic properties. DES is known to alter cytoskeletal components, including the organization of actin stress fibres in C6 rat glioma cells. ln a test of the hypothesis that DES disrupts actin Filaments of growth cones in neuron-like cells, DES-induced changes in filopodial lengths were quantified in rat pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells in vitro. DES significantly altered growth cone morphology, with collapse of growth cone filopodia and neurite retraction invariably occurring at a concentration of 10 MikroM. At 5 MikroM DES, transient reductions in total filopodiallengths occurred. At DES concentrations of 0.1 nM and 1 nM, reductions in total filopodiallengths occurred in a fraction of growth cones. Evidence exists which shows that growth cone activity and morphology are intimately linked to Ieveis of intracellular, free calcium and that DES increases such levels. Measurements of free intracellular calcium levels by fluorescence microscopy, at times concurrent with the DES-induced reduction in total filopodial lengths, showed that calcium levels were indeed significantly increased by 10 MirkoM DES. Labelling of filamentaus actin (f-actin) with FITC-phalloidin showed that the f-actin distribution in growth cones exposed to DES could not be differentiated from the distribution found in spontaneously retracting growth cones. Tagether with evidence which showed that growth cone motility was not affected, the results are taken to indicate that DES, rather than acting directly on the cytoskeleton, exerts its effects indirectly, by a calcium-induced destabilization of actin filaments in the growth cone.
Tbe alkylating potency of unstable N-nitrosamino acids and N-nitrosopeptides was investigated in vitro using 4-(para-nitrobenzyl)pyridine (NBP) as nucleophile. Of the amino acids, Met and those with an aromatic side chain were the most potent. The relative overall alkylating potency was 23:10:5:4:2:1: for Trp, Met, His, 1)rr, Phe and Gly, respectively. The homo-dipeptides were much more potent than the amino acids, with relative potencies of 400:110:100:8:3:1, for Trp-Trp, l)T-'I)T, Met-Met, Asp-Asp, Phe-Phe and Gly, respectively. In the one-phase reaction system (in which NBP is already present durlog the nitrosation reaction at acidic pH), all amino acids tested showed a second-order reaction for nitrite. In the two-phase system (in which NBP is added only after bringing the nitrosation reaction mixture to neutrality), all amino acids tested except one again showed a second-order reaction for nitrite (Phe, His, Asp and the dipeptide artiticial sweetener aspartame); only Met under these conditions bad a reaction order of one for nitrite. This could mean that nitrosation of the side chain of Metproduces a second N-nitroso product which is relatively stable in acid but reacts with NBP under neutral conditions. In the human stomach, this side-chain nitrosation might become more important than the reactions at the primary amino group, firstly because of the greater stability of the product(s) in acid and secondly because of the tirst-order reaction rate for nitrite. A decrease in nitrite concentration from the millimolar concentrations ofthe in-vitro assay to the micromolar concentrations in the stomach reduces the reaction rate by a factor of 1000 for the side-chain nitrosation, whereas a million-fold reduction will be observed for nitrosation of the amino group.
Known mutagens and carcinogens in the dict were compiled and the risk of cancer was estimated on the basis of average exposure Ievels in Switzerland and carcinogenic potencies from rodent bioassays. The analysis showed that, except for a1cohol, the sum of all known dietary carcinogens could only explain a few percent of the cancer deaths attributed by epidemiologists to dietary factors. The discrepancy was explained by a "carcinogenicity" of excess macronutrients. This hypothesis was based on an evaluation of dietary restriction experiments in rats and mice, where a dramatic reducing effect on spontaneaus tumour formation was seen. From these experiments, a "carcinogenic potency" was deduced for food in excess (TD50 approximately 16 g/kg per day). Ovemutrition in Switzerland was converted into excess food intake and the cancer risk estimated on the basis ofthe TD50 value. The resulting risk of60,000 cases per one million lives wou1d aJlow to explain by overnutrition almost all "diet-related" cancer deaths in humans.
An improved 32P-postlabelling assay for detection and quantitation of styrene 7,8-oxide-DNA adducts
(1993)
Using DNA modified with [7-3H]styrene 7,8-oxide (SO) in vitro we have standardized the 32P-postlabelling assay for detecting SO-DNA adducts. Nuclease P 1-enriched adducts were 32P-labelled and purified by high-salt ( 4.0 M ammonium formate, pH 6.1} C1s reverse-phase TLC. After elution from the layer with 2-butoxyethanol:H20 (4:6), adducts were separated by two-dimensional PEI cellulose TLC in non-urea solvents (2.0 M ammonium formate, pH 3.5, and 2.7 M sodium phosphate, pH 5.6). One major, three minor and several trace adducts were detected. The efficiency of the kinase reaction depended on the ATP concentration. Use of standard labelling conditions (['Y· 32P]ATP, <3000 Ci/mmol; <2 Mikromol) resulted in poor ( 4-7%) adduct recovery. An ATP concentration of 40 Mikromol, however, increased the labeJling efficiency by a factor of 5-8 (35-55% based on 3H-SO labelied DNA). The results indicate that the new separation technique is suitable for the relatively polar SO-DNA adducts and that high labelling efficiency can be achieved.
Polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMNL) infiltration is an important characteristic in psoriatic lesions. Elevated concentrations of the chemoattractant eicosanoid leukotriene B4 (L TB4) are present in psoriatic skin. Its chemotactic activity is mediated via high affinity receptors on PMNL. The goal of our work was to ascertain whether PMNL infiltration in psoriasis can be accounted for by functional abnormalities of the circulating PMNL due to alterations in the LTB4 receptor density or affinity (or both). No significant difference was found between patients with psoriasis, healthy controls and patients with another inflammatory dermatosis (atopic eczema) with regard to the binding parameters of LTB4 receptors on PMNL. Our findings suggest that PMNL accumulation in psoriatic skin may be the result of an excess of cutaneous hemoattractant rather than the increased readiness of psoriatic PMNL to migrate towards L TB4 due to altered LTB4 receptor density or affinity.
Adenosine modulates a variety of physiological functions via membrane-bound receptors. These receptors couple via G proteins to adenylate cyclase and K+channels. The A1 subtype mediates an inhibition of adenylate cyclase and an opening of K+-channels, and the A2 subtype a Stimulation of adenylate cyclase. Both subtypes have been characterized by radioligand binding. This has facilitated the development of agonists and antagonists with more than 1000-fold A1 selectivity. A1-selective photoaffinity labels have been used for the biochemical characterization of A1 receptors and the study of their coupling to adenylate cyclase. Such selective ligands allow the analysis of the involvement of adenosine receptors in physiological functions. Selective interference with adenosine receptors provides new pharmacological tools and eventually new therapeutic approaches to a number of pathophysiological states.
Nitrosation of dietary components has been combined with the 4-(para-nitrobenzyl)pyridine (NBP) colorimetric test for screening alkylating agents and with the Ames test for the detection of mutagenic activity. This allowed the investigation of short-hved nitrosation products of dietary components which generate electrophilic degradation products requiring no metabolic activation (natural amino acids and some derivatives, ureas, guanidines, primary alkyl and aryl amines). In a first system, precursor, nitrous acid and NBP were present simultaneously. All amino acids tested, except glutamic acid and glutamine, gave positive results. The reactivities spanned more than three orders of magnitude, with the aromatic amino acids and methionine the most active; two primary amines, tryptamine and histamine, were also strongly reactive. All guanidines tested, except the amino acid arginine, gave negative results. A second system consisted of two phases: NBP was added only after destruction of residual nitrite and adjustment of the pH to neutrality. This system was useful for the study of ureas, which are stable in acid but not in neutral media. The range of responses covered more than two orders of magnitude. Most amino acids and primary amines also gave positive results, but could be assessed only after analysing the kinetics of the competing reactions and choosing appropriate reaction times. In a third system, Salmonella typhimurium strain TA1OO replaced NBP. Representatives of the class of amino acids, ureas, the primary amine tryptamine, and aniline became higbly mutagenic upon nitrosation. Methylguanidine was only weakly mutagenic under the present assay conditions. The results indicate that further studies with unstable nitrosation products of dietary components are required to understand more thoroughly the role of endogenous nitrosation in gastric cancer.
The potential health risk posed by the endogenous formation of N-nitroso compounds (NOC) from nitrosation of dietary ureas, guanidines, amides, amino acids and amanes (primary, secondary and aromatic) was estimated according to the model:
Risk = ( daily intake of precursor] X (gastric concentration of nitrite ]n X [nitrosatability rate constant] X [cilrcinogenicity of derivative].
The daily intakes ofthese compound classes span five orders ofmagnitude (100 g/day amides, top; 1-10 mg/day secondary amines, ureas, bottom); the nitrosation rate constants span seven orders of magnitude (aryl amines, ureas, top; amides, secondary amines, bottom); and the carcinogenicity estimates span a 10 000-fold range from 'very strong' to 'virtually noncarcinogenic'. The resulting risk estimates likewise span an enormous range (nine orders of magnitude ): dietary ureas and aromatic amines combined with high nitrite concentration could pose as great a risk as the intake of preformed N-nitrosodimethylamine in the diet. In contrast, the risk posed by the in-vivo nitrosation of primary and secondary amines is probably negligible. The risk contributed by amides (including protein), guanidines and primary amino acids is intermediate between these two extremes.
The ligand-binding subunit ofthe A1 adenosine receptor has been identified in membranes with the photoaffinity Iabel R-2-azido-N6-p-hydroxyphenylisopropyladenosine (R-AHPIA). Covalent labelling ofthe A1 receptor can also be achieved in intact cells. The dissociation of the radioiodinated label (1251-AHPIA) from isolated rat fat cells was incomplete after UV irradiation, leaving about 20°/o of irreversible specific binding. Such covalent labelling of the receptor led to a concentration-dependent reduction of cellular cyclic AMP levels. This persistent effect of covalent labeHing occurred with an IC50 value of 9 nM, as compared to an IC50 value of 0.9 nM for the direct reduction of cyclic AMP Ievels by the ligand. The difference in the IC5o values can be explained by assuming spare receptors. This hypothesis was verified in binding studies using [ 3HJPIA as a radioligand. R-AHPIA inhibited binding of [3H)PIA to intact fat cells with a K1 value of about 20 nM, which is about 20 tim es high er than the corresponding IC50 value of cyclic AMP reduction. These data show that the A1 receptor is activated according to the occupancy theory. The high sensitivity of the activation in intact ceJis is due to a large number of spare receptors.
We have previously reported that in several renal cell types, adenosine receptor agonists inhibit adenylyl cyclase and activate phospholipase C via a pertussis toxin-sensitive G protein. In the present study, in 28A cells, both uf these adenosine receptor-mediated responses were inhibited by 8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine (DPCPX). a highly selective A1 adenosine receptor antagonist. The binding characteristics of the adenosine A 1 receptor in the 28A renal cell line were studied using the radiolabeled antagonist f:1H]DPCPX to determine whether two separate binding sites could account for these responses. Saturation binding of [: 1H]DPCPX to 28A cell membranes revealed a single class of A1 binding sites with an apparent Kd value of 1.4 nM and maximal binding capacity of 64 fmol/mg protein. Competition experiments with a variety of adenosine agonists gave biphasic displacement curves with a pharmacological profile characteristic of A1 receptors. Comparison of [: 1H]DPCPX competition binding data from 28A cell membranes with rabbit brain membranes, a tissue with well-characterized A1 receptors, reveals that the A 1 receptor population in 28A cells has similar agonist binding affinities to the receptor population in brain but has a considerably lower density. Addition of guanosine ;)' -triphosphate ( 100 ,uM) to 28A cell membranes caused the competition curves to shift from biphasic to monophasic. indicating that the A1 receptors exist in two interconvertible affinity states because of their coupling to G proteins. In the absence of evidence for subpopulations of the A1 receptor, it appears that in 28A cells. A single A1 receptor population. As defined by ligand binding characteristics, couples via one or more pertussis toxin-sensitive guanine nucleotide binding proteins to two different biological signaling mechanisms.
It has previously been shown that covalent incorporation of the photoreactive adenosine derivative (R)-2-azido-N6-p-hydroxyphenytisopropyladenosine [(R)-AHPIA] into the A, adenosine receptor of intact fat cells leads to a persistent activation of this receptor, resulting in a reduction of celular cAMP Ieveis [Mol. Pharmacol. 30:403-409 (1986)]. In contrast, covalent incorporation of (R)-AHPIA into human platelet membranes, which contain only stimulatory A2 adenosine receptors, reduces adenytate cyclase Stimulation via these receptors. This effect of (R)-AHPIA is specific for the A2 receptor and can be prevented by the adenosine receptor antagonist theophylline. Binding studies in-dicate that up to 90% of A2 receptors can be blocked by photoincorporation of (R)-AHPIA. However, the remaining 10-20% of A2 receptors are sufficient to mediate an adenylate cyclase Stimulation of up to SOOk of the control value. Similarly, the activation via these 10-20% of receptors occurs with a halflife that is only 2 times Ionger than that in control membranes. This indicates the presence of a receptor reserve, with respect to both the extent and the rate of adenytate cyclase Stimulation. These observations require a modification of the models of receptor-adenytate cyclase coupling, which is described in the accompanying paper [Mol. Pharmacol. 39:524-530 (1991)].
The binding of agonists and antagonists to a2-adrenergic receptors of human platelets was studied. The receptors showed homogeneaus affinities for antagonists but two affinity states for the agonist (-)-epinephrine, which were modulated by guanine nucleotides. Van't Hoffplots of antagonist binding had a break point at about 18° and considerable diversity between 18° and 0°. Agonist binding to both affinity states showed a similar break point; agonist binding to the high affinity state was characterized by a large entropy component compared to the low affinity state. This entropy component was reduced at higher concentrations of sodium, indicating that it may be due to Iiberation of sodium ions. Measurements of the fluorescence of 1-anilin-8-naphthalenesulfonate showed thermotropic phase transitions of theplatelet membranes at about 17°. The transition temperature was decreased to about 12° by addition of 1 0 mM octanoic acid. Octanoic acidalso shifted the break points of the van't Hoffplot of antagonist and low affinity agonist binding from 18° to 12°. High affinity agonist binding, however, remained unchanged. It is concluded that agonist-specific thennodynamic characteristics of ligand binding to a2-receptors of human platelets can only be investigated by regarding differences between high and low affinity agonist binding. These differences include an entropy increase upon Iigand binding, which is in part due to enhanced liberation of sodium ions, and a loss of sensitivity to fluidity changes in the outer layer of the plasma membrane.
Mechanistic possibilitles responsible for nonlinear shapes of the dose-response relationship in chemical carcinogenesis are discussed. (i) Induction and saturation of enzymatic activation and detoxification processes and of DNA repair affect the relationship between dose and steady-state DNA adduct Ievel; (ii) The fixation of DNA adducts in the form of mutations is accelerated by stimulation of the cell division, for Jnstance due to regenerative hyperplasia at cytotoxic dose Ievels; (iii) The rate of tumor formation results from a superposition of the rates of the individual steps. It can become exponential with dose if more than one step is accelerated by the DNA damage exerted by the genotoxic carcinogen. The strongly sigmoidal shapes often observed for dose-tumor incidence relationships in animal bioassays supports this analysis. A power of four for the dose in the su~linear part of the curve is the maximum observed (formaldehyde). In contrast to animal experiments, epidemiological data ln humans rarely show a slgnificant deviation from linearity. The discrepancy might be explained by the fact that a I arge nu mber of genes contribute to the overall sensitivity of an individual and to the respective heterogeneity within the human population. Mechanistic nonlinearities are flattened out in the presence of genetic and life-style factors which affect the sensitivity for the development of cancer. For a risk assessment, linear extrapolation from the high-dose lncidence to the spontaneaus rate can therefore be approprlate in a heterogeneous population even if the mechanism of action would result in a nonlinear shape of the dose-response curve in a homogeneaus population.
The diet contains a large number of constituents which can be nitrosated in the gastrointestinal tract (especially in the stomach) to potentially carcinogenic nitroso compounds (NOC). The nitrosation of food mixtures has been investigated with a number of assays, such as chemical analysis or detection of alkylating potential, mutagenicity and carcinogenicity. Relatively good information is available on the formation of stable nitrosamines using high nitrite concentrations. Little is known, however, about the formation of chemically unstable NOC at low nitrite concentration and their genotoxicity in target cells. A comparison of the precursor classes, alkylamines, aromatic amines, amino acids, amides and peptides, ureas and guanidines, reveals a vast range, both with respect to daily intake (105-fold) and nitrosation rate (104-fold both for 1st and 2nd order nitrite dependence). A total span of 108 results for the relative yield of NOC in the stomach. The endogenous NOC burden from dietary ureas and aromatic amines may represent as large a hazard as the intake of preformed NOC. Recent evidence also indicates that heterocyclic amines and phenols must be considered and that the half-life of nitrosated a-amino acids can be much longer than that of nitrosated primary alkylamines. In these classes, more information should be collected on dietary concentrations, on the nitrosation under realistic conditions and on the genotoxicity in stomach lining cells. Within a chemical precursor class, a wide range is seen with respect to alkylating potency. It cannot, therefore, be excluded that individual precursors within the top ranking classes might become more important than single preformed NOC. Not considered in the above analysis but probably just as important for a risk evaluation in a population is the knowledge of the nitrosation conditions and target cell susceptibility in individuals.
[7-3H)Styrene 7,8-oxide was administered by oral gavage to male CD rats at a dose of 1.3 mg/kg. After 4 h, the forestomach was excised, DNA was isolated, purified to constant specific radioactivity and degraded nzymatically to the 3 '-nucleotides. Highperformance liquid chromatography fractions with the normal nucleotides contained most of the radiolabel, but a minute level of adduct label was also detccted. Using the units of the covalent binding index (micromoles adduct per mole DNA nucleotide)/(millimole chemical administered per kilogram body weight), a DNA binding potency of 1.0 was derived. A comparison of the covalent binding indices and carcinogenic potencies of other genotoxic forestarnach carcinogens showed that the tumorigenic activity of styrene oxide is unlikely to be purely genotoxic. Therefore, styrene oxide was compared with 3-tbutylhydroxyanisole (BHA) with respect to stimulation of cell proliferation in the forestomach. Male Fischer 344 rats were treated for four weeks at three dose levels of styrene oxide (0, 137, 275 and 550 mg/kg, three times per week by oral gavage) and BHA (0, 0.5, 1 and 2% in the diet); the highest doses had been reported to result in 84% and 22% carcinomas in the forestomach, respectively. Cell proliferation was assessed by incorporation of bromodeoxyuridine into DNA and immunohistochemical analysis. An increase in the lablling indexwas found in a11 treated animals. In the prefundic region of the forestomach, the labeHing index increased significantly, from 42% (controls) to 54% with styrene oxide and from 41 to 55% with BHA. Rats treated with BHA also had severe hyperplastic lesions in the prefundic region, i.e., at the location of BHA-induced forestomach carcinomas. The number of cells per millimetre of section length was increased up to 19 fold. Hyperplastic lesions were not seen with styrene oxide, despite the higher tumour incidence reported with this compound. We conclude that the carcinogenicity of styrene oxide to the forestomach most probably involves a mechanism in which marginal genotoxicity is combined with promotion by increased cell proliferation.
Barbiturates inhibit binding of radioligands to A 1(Ri) adenosine receptors of rat brain membranes. This inhibition is dose-dependent and stereospecific and occurs in the range of pharmacologically active concentrations. The displacement of radiolabelled A1antagonists by barbiturates is not modified by GTP, indicating that barbiturates might act as antagonists at this receptor. This action of barbiturates does not seem to be related to the binding of barbiturates to plasma membranes, as the latter process has different characteristics. Barbiturates also inhibit the binding of radioligands to solubilized A1receptors, and saturation and kinetic experiments suggest that this is due to a competitive antagonism. These results indicate that barbiturates interact with the recognition site of the A1adenosine receptor.
Inflammation and oxidative stress are known to be involved in the pathogenesis of chronic kidney disease in humans, and in chronic renal failure (CRF) in rats. The aim of this work was to study the role of inflammation and oxidative stress in adenine-induced CRF and the effect thereon of the purported nephroprotective agent gum arabic (GA). Rats were divided into four groups and treated for 4 weeks as follows: control, adenine in feed (0.75%, w/w), GA in drinking water (15%, w/v) and adenine+GA, as before. Urine, blood and kidneys were collected from the rats at the end of the treatment for analysis of conventional renal function tests (plasma creatinine and urea concentration). In addition, the concentrations of the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-a and the oxidative stress markers glutathione and superoxide dismutase, renal apoptosis, superoxide formation and DNA double strand break frequency, detected by immunohistochemistry for
c-H2AX, were measured. Adenine significantly increased the concentrations of urea and creatinine in plasma, significantly decreased the creatinine clearance and induced significant increases in the concentration of the measured inflammatory mediators.
Further, it caused oxidative stress and DNA damage. Treatment with GA significantly ameliorated these actions. The mechanism of the reported salutary effect of GA in adenine-induced CRF is associated with mitigation of the adenine-induced inflammation and generation of free radicals.
Spatiotemporale Organisation der Interaktion von Gq Protein-Untereinheiten und der Phospholipase Cβ3
(2012)
Die G-Protein vermittelte Aktivierung der Phospholipase Cβ (PLCβ) stellt einen primären Mechanismus dar, um eine Vielzahl von physiologischen Ereignissen zu regulieren, z.B. die Kontraktion glatter Muskelzellen, Sekretion oder die Modulation der synaptischen Transmission. Sowohl Gαq- als auch Gβγ-Untereinheiten sind dafür bekannt mit PLCβ Enzymen zu interagieren und diese zu aktivieren. Über die Dynamik dieser Interaktion und den relative Beitrag der G-Protein Untereinheiten ist jedoch nur wenig bekannt. Unter Verwendung Fluoreszenz Resonanz Energie Transfer (FRET)- basierter Methoden in lebenden Zellen, wurde die Kinetik der Rezeptor-induzierten Interaktion zwischen Gβγ und Gαq Untereinheiten, die Interaktion von sowohl der Gαq als auch der Gβγ-Untereinheit mit der PLCβ3 und die Interaktion des regulator of G-Protein signaling 2 (RGS2) mit Gαq-Untereinheiten untersucht. Um die Untersuchung der Protein-Protein-Interaktion auf die Zellmembran zu beschränken, wurde die Total-Internal Reflection Fluorescence (TIRF) Mikroskopie angewandt. Zeitlich hoch auflösendes, ratiometrisches FRET-Imaging offenbarte eine deutlich schnellere Dissoziation von Gαq und PLCβ3 nach Entzug purinerger Agonisten verglichen mit der Deaktivierung von Gq Proteinen in der Abwesenheit der PLCβ3. Dieser offensichtliche Unterschied in der Kinetik kann durch die GTPase-aktivierende Eigenschaft der PLCβ3 in lebenden Zellen erklärt werden. Weiterhin zeigte es sich, dass PLCβ3 die Gq Protein Kinetik in einem ähnlich Ausmaß beeinflusst wie RGS2, welches in vitro deutlich effizienter darin ist, die intrinsische GTPase Aktivität der Gαq-Untereinheit zu beschleunigen. Als Antwort auf die Rezeptorstimulation wurde sowohl eine Interaktion von Gαq-Untereinheiten als auch von Gq-abstammende Gβγ-Untereinheiten mit der PLCβ3 beobachtet. Darüber hinaus zeigte sich auch eine Agonist-abhängige Interaktion von Gαq und RGS2. In Abwesenheit einer Rezeptorstimulation konnte kein spezifisches FRET-Signal zwischen Gq Proteinen und der PLCβ3 oder RGS2 detektiert werden. Zusammengefasst ermöglichte das ratiometrische FRET-Imaging in der TIRF Mikroskopie neue Einsichten in die Dynamik und Interaktionsmuster des Gq-Signalwegs.
Hyperinsulinemia, a condition with excessively high insulin blood levels, is related to an increased cancer incidence. Diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, obesity and polycystic ovarian syndrome are the most common of several diseases accompanied by hyperinsulinemia. Since an elevated cancer risk especially for colon and kidney cancers, was reported for those patients, we investigated for the first time the induction of genomic damage by insulin mainly in HT29 (human colon cells), LLC-PK1 (pig kidney cells), HK2 (human kidney cells) and peripheral lymphocytes, and to confirm the genotoxicity of insulin in other cells from different tissues. To ascertain that the insulin effects were not only limited to permanent cell lines, rat primary colon, kidney, liver and fatty tissue cells were also studied. To connect the study and the findings to in vivo conditions, two in vivo models for hyperinsulinemia were used; Zucker diabetic fatty rats in a lean and diabetic state infused with different insulin concentrations and peripheral lymphocytes from type 2 diabetes mellitus patients. First, the human colon adenocarcinoma cells (HT29) showed significant elevation of DNA damage using comet assay and micronucleus frequency analysis upon treatment with 5 nM insulin in standard protocols. Extension of the treatment to 6 days lowered the concentration needed to reach significance to 0.5-1 nM. Insulin enhanced the cellular ROS production as examined by the oxidation of the dyes 2´,7´-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (H2DCF-DA) and dihydroethidium (DHE). The FPG modified comet assay and the reduction of damage by the radical scavenger tempol connected the insulin-mediatedDNA damage to ROS production. To investigate the sources of ROS upon insulin stimulation, apocynin and VAS2870 as NADPH oxidase inhibitors and rotenone as mitochondrial inhibitor were applied in combination with insulin and all of them led to a reduction of the genomic damage. Investigation of the signaling pathway started by evaluation of the binding of insulin to its receptor and to the IGF-1 receptor. The results showed the involvement of both receptors in the signaling mechanism. Following the activation of both receptors, PI3K activation occurs leading to phosphorylation of AKT which in turn activates two pathways for ROS production, the first related to mitochondria and the second through activation of Rac1 , resulting in the activation of Nox1. Both pathways could be activated through AKT or through the mitochondrial ROS which in turn could activates Nox1. Studying another human colon cancer cell line, Caco-2 and rat primary colon cells in vitro confirmed the effect of insulin on cellular chromatin. We conclude that pathophysiological levels of insulin can cause DNA damage in colon cells, which may contribute to the induction or progression of colon cancer. Second, in kidney cells, insulin at a concentration of 5 nM caused a significant increase in DNA damage in vitro. This was associated with the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In the presence of antioxidants, blockers of the insulin and IGF-1 receptors, and a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases (PI3K) inhibitor, the insulin mediated DNA damage was reduced. Phosphorylation of AKT was increased and p53 accumulated. Inhibition of the mitochondrial and NADPH oxidase related ROS production reduced the insulin mediated damage. In primary rat cells insulin also induced genomic damage. HK2 cells were used to investigate the mechanistic pathway in the kidney The signaling is identical to the one in the colon cells untill the activation of the mitochondrial ROS production, because after the activation of PI3K activation of Nox4 occurs at the same time across talk between mitochondria and Nox4 activation has been suggested and might play a role in the observed effects. In the in vivo model, kidneys from healthy, lean ZDF rats, which were infused with insulin to yield normal or high blood insulin levels, while keeping blood glucose levels constant, the amounts of ROS and p53 were elevated in the high insulin group compared to the control level group. ROS and p53 were also elevated in diabetic obese ZDF rats. The treatment of the diabetic rats with metformin reduced the DNA oxidation measured as 8-oxodG as well as the ROS production in that group. HL60 the human premyelocytic cells and cultured lymphocytes as models for the hemopoietic system cells showed a significant induction for DNA damage upon treatment with insulin. The diabetic patients also exhibited an increase in the micronucleus formation over the healthy individuals. In the present study, we showed for the first time that insulin induced oxidative stress resulting in genomic damage in different tissues, and that the source of the produced ROS differs between the tissues. If the same mechanisms are active in patients, hyperinsulinemia might cause genomic damage through the induction of ROS contributing to the increased cancer risk, against which the use of antioxidants as well as mitochondrial and NADPH oxidase inhibitors might exert protective effects with cancer preventive potential under certain conditions. Normal healthy human plasma insulin concentrations are in the order of 0.04 nM after overnight fasting and increase to less than about 0.2 nM after a meal. Pathophysiological levels can reach 1 nM and can stay above 0.2 nM for the majority of the daytime yielding condictions close to the insulin concentrations determined in the present study. Whether the observed effects also occur in vivo and whether they actually initiate or promote tumor formation remains to be determined. However, if proof of that can be obtained, our experiments with inhibitors indicate chances for pharmacological intervention applying antioxidants or enzyme inhibitors. It will not be the aim to reduce ROS in any case or as much as possible because ROS have now been recognized as important signaling molecules and participatants in immune defense, but a reduction to physiological levels instead of pathophysiological levels in the context of a disease associated with ROS overproduction might be beneficial.
Unsere Arbeitsgruppe verfolgt im Rattenmodell der Antikörper-induzierten DiCM einen Antikörper-spezifischen Therapieansatz durch die Gabe eines synthetischen β1-ECII homologen zyklischen „Fänger“-Peptids. Die Applikation dieses Peptids führte zu einer deutlichen Verbesserung wichtiger Herzparameter wie z.B. des Durchmessers des linken Ventrikels (LV) sowie der LV-Verkürzungsfraktion und des kardialen Indexes. Des Weiteren kam es unter der Peptid-Therapie zu einer signifikanten Reduktion des anti-β1-ECII Antikörpertiters trotz kontinuierlich durchgeführter Immunisierungen mit dem die Erkrankung induzierenden Antigen.
Es lag daher nahe, dass durch die Peptid-Therapie auch eine Art immunologischer Toleranz induziert wird, der eine Depletion bzw. funktionelle Beeinträchtigung von Zellen des Immunsystems, die an der Produktion von anti-β1-ECII Antikörpern beteiligt sind, zugrunde liegen könnte. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Doktorarbeit war es daher Aufgabe, die verschiedenen Zellkomponenten der humoralen und zellulären Immunantwort zu untersuchen, um den immunologischen Effekt der Peptid-Applikation besser zu verstehen.
So scheinen in unserem Modell die β1-ECII-spezifischen CD4+T-Zellen durch die Peptid-Therapie
nicht beeinflusst zu werden; ebenso konnten unsere Experimente keinen Zyklopeptideffekt auf die langlebigen Plasmazellen nachweisen. Die erzielten Ergebnisse sprechen jedoch dafür, dass die Rückbildung des DiCM Phänotyps und der Abfall des anti-β1-ECII Antikörpertiters trotz kontinuierlicher Immunisierung zum einen auf der direkten Neutralisierung der anti-β1-ECII Antikörper durch die Ring-Peptide (Scavenger-Effekt)und zum anderen auf einer Depletion bzw. funktionellen Beeinträchtigung der β1-ECII-spezifischen Memory B-Zellen beruhen könnte. Der für die Reduktion der Memory B-Zellen letztlich verantwortliche molekulare Mechanismus muss jedoch noch in weiteren Experimenten untersucht werden.
Die im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit erzielten Ergebnisse tragen aber wesentlich zum besseren Verständnis der Wirkungsweise dieses neuartigen Therapiekonzepts zur Behandlung der immuninduzierten Kardiomyopathie bei.
In addition to its tumor-promoting activity in honnone-receptive tissue, the carcinogenic estrogen diethylstilbestrol (DES) has been found to induce cell transformation, aneuploidy and micronucleus formation in mammalian cells. The majority of these micronuclei contained whole chromosomes and were fonned during mitosis. Here a possible relationship between a disturbance in cell cycle progression and micronucleus fonnation is investigated by exposing Syrian hamster embryo (SHE) cells to DES. Continuous bromodeoxyuridine labeling followed by bivariate Hoechst 33258/ethidium bromide flow cytometry was employed for analysis of cell cycle transit and related to the time course of micronucleus formation. Treatment of SHE cells with DES resulted in delayed and impaired cell activation (exit from the GO/G 1 phase), impaired S-phase transit and, mainly, G2-phase traverse. Cells forming micronuclei, on the other hand, were predominantly in G2 phase during DES treatment. These results suggest that impairment of Sand G2 transit may involve a process ultimately leading to micronucleus formation.
Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) represents an important subgroup of patients suffering from heart failure. The disease is supposed to be associated with autoimmune mechanisms in about one third of the cases. In the latter patients functionally active conformational autoantibodies directed against the second extracellular loop of the β1-adrenergic receptor (AR, β1ECII-aabs) have been detected. Such antibodies chronically stimulate the β1-AR thereby inducing the adrenergic signaling cascade in cardiomyocytes, which, in the long run, contributes to heart failure progression. We analyzed the production of cAMP after aab-mediated β1-AR activation in vitro using a fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) assay. This assay is based on HEK293 cells stably expressing human β1-AR as well as the cAMP-sensor Epac1-camps. The assay showed a concentration-dependent increase in intracellular cAMP upon stimulation with the full agonist (-) isoproterenol. This response was comparable to results obtained in isolated adult murine cardiomyocytes and was partially blockable by a selective β1-AR antagonist. In the same assay poly- and monoclonal anti-β1ECII-abs (induced in different animals) could activate the adrenergic signaling cascade, whereas isotypic control abs had no effect on intracellular cAMP levels. Using the same method, we were able to detect functionally activating aabs in the serum of heart failure patients with ischemic and hypertensive heart disease as well as patients with DCM, but not in sera of healthy control subjects. In patients with DCM we observed an inverse correlation between the stimulatory potential of anti-β1-aabs and left ventricular pump function. To adopt this assay for the detection of functionally activating anti-β1ECII-aabs in clinical routine we attempted to establish an automated large-scale approach. Neither flow cytometry nor FRET detection with a fluorescence plate reader provided an acceptable signal-to-noise ratio. It was possible to detect (-) isoproterenol in a concentration-dependent manner using two different FRET multiwell microscopes. However, due to focus problems large-scale detection of activating anti-β1ECII-abs could not be implemented. Neutralization of anti-β1-aabs with the corresponding epitope-mimicking peptides is a possible therapeutic approach to treat aab-associated autoimmune DCM. Using our FRET assay we could demonstrate a reduction in the stimulatory potential of anti-β1ECII-abs after in vitro incubation with β1ECII-mimicking peptides. Cyclic (and to a lesser extent linear) peptides in 40-fold molar excess acted as efficient ab-scavengers in vitro. Intravenously injected cyclic peptides in a rat model of DCM also neutralized functionally active anti-β1ECII-abs efficiently in vivo. For a detailed analysis of the receptor-epitope targeted by anti-β1ECII-abs we used sequentially alanine-mutated β1ECII-mimicking cyclic peptides. Our data revealed that the disulfide bridge between the cysteine residues C209 and C215 of the human β1-AR appears essential for the formation of the ab-epitope. Substitution of further amino acids relevant for ab-binding in the cyclic scavenger peptide by alanine reduced its affinity to the ab and the receptor-activating potential was blocked less efficiently. In contrast, the non-mutant cyclic peptide almost completely blocked ab-induced receptor activation. Using this ala-scan approach we were able to identify a “NDPK”-epitope as essential for ab binding to the β1ECII. In summary, neutralization of conformational activating anti-β1ECII-(a)abs by cyclic peptides is a plausible therapeutic concept in heart failure that should be further exploited based on the here presented data.
Cell adhesion and migration are essential for development and homeostasis. Adhesion to the extracellular matrix occurs at specialized plasma membrane domains where transmembrane adhesion receptors, signaling proteins such as kinases and phosphatases, and a large number of adaptor proteins interact with the cytoskeleton in a tightly regulated and synchronized fashion. Whereas altered cell adhesion and migration are known to be important in cardiovascular disease and malignant tumors, the target proteins and molecular interactions that regulate these complex processes still remain incompletely understood. Whereas numerous kinases are known to regulate cell adhesion dynamics, information about the involved protein phosphatases is still very limited. A newly emerging phosphatase family contains the unconventional active site sequence DXDX(T/V) and belongs to the haloacid dehalogenase (HAD) superfamily of hydrolases. Our laboratory has recently discovered AUM, a novel phosphatase that belongs to this poorly characterized enzyme family. Initial findings pointed toward a potential involvement of AUM in the regulation of cell adhesion to the extracellular matrix. The objective of the present study was to study the potential role of AUM in cell adhesion. We could show that cells stably depleted of AUM are characterized by accelerated adhesion on immobilized fibronectin. To confirm these findings, we used an siRNA-based approach for the acute depletion of AUM and observed a similar phenomenon. Rescue experiments were performed with stably AUM-depleted cells to ensure that the above mentioned effects are indeed AUM specific. We observed that the re-addition of AUM normalizes cellular adhesion kinetics on fibronectin. These results clearly show that AUM exerts important functions in cell-matrix adhesion. To investigate the molecular basis of these effects, we have characterized integrin expression patterns using flow cytometry. Interestingly, fibronectin-stimulated AUM-depleted cells are characterized by an increase in the cell surface expression of conformationally active 1-integrins. Consistent with the important role of 1-integrins in the regulation of RhoA activity, we also observed a specific increase in RhoA-GTP, but not Rac1-GTP-levels during cell adhesion to fibronectin. Consistent with these findings and with the important role of RhoA for focal adhesion maturation, AUM depleted cells showed more elongated and more centripetally oriented focal adhesions as compared to control cells when spread on fibronectin. Taken together, this study has revealed an important role of AUM for cell-matrix adhesion. Our findings strongly suggest that AUM functions as a negative regulator of 1-integrins and RhoA-dependent cytoskeletal dynamics during cell adhesion.
The binding of tritiated benzo(a)pyrene (BP) to liver DNA of 25 adult male rats (SIV 50) has been determined 50 h after a single intraperitoneal injection of doses between 40 ug/kg and 4; mg/kg. The dose-response relations~ ip is linear up to i mg/kg, shows a sigmoid step towards 2 mg/kg and a shallow linear. slope above that value. TlJe 0 bserved bin ding ranges from 1.7 to 180 nmoles BP per mole DNA phosphate. The non-linearity between 1 and 2 mg/kg could be explained 0):1 the basis of an induction of metabolizing enzymes. A pure1y mathematical extrapolation of therumour incidence from a carcinogenic dose (1 x 40mg/kg for a 20% hepatoma incidence in newborn mice) to human exposure levels (aboilt 0.1 ug/kg per day) would never have followed a step like the on~ found in our experiments. Our dose-effect study therefore shows how carcinogenitity data could be extrapolated in a biologically founded way to low doses.
In the inhalation system described an animal can be kept in the same atmosphere of a 2-liter desiccator for up to 24 h. The expired carbon dioxide is adsorbed with soda lime and the resulting reduced pressure is balanced by a supply of oxygen also used for the inflow of the chemical to be investigated. Urine and faeces can be collected ~eparately and the system allows a periodical control of the concentration of the chemical by sampling the air with needle and syringe.
b-adrenergic receptors (b-ARs) participate strongly in the development of cardiac hypertrophy and human heart failure. Stimulation of b-adrenergic receptors with catecholamines as well as cardiac overexpression of b1-ARs or of Gas-proteins in transgenic mice induces cardiac hypertrophy. However, direct activation of their downstream targets, such as adenylyl cyclase (AC) or protein kinase A do not promote a significant degree of cardiac hypertrophy. These findings suggest that additional events may occur and that these events require Gas-protein activation. A hypertrophic pathway involving Gaq-protein coupled receptors has recently been described. Upon activation of Gaq-coupled receptors Gbg-subunits are released from Gaq and bind directly to the activated Raf/Mek/Erk cascade. Direct interaction between bg-subunits and activated Erk1/2 leads to an additional autophosphorylation of Erk2 at threonine 188, which mediates cardiac hypertrophy. Murine hearts, as well as isolated cardiomyocytes present an increase in Erk2Thr188-phosphorylation upon b-AR activation. Similarly overexpression of phosphorylation deficient Erk2 mutants (Erk2T188S and Erk2T188A) reduces b-AR mediated cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. Increase in left ventricular wall thickness, fibrosis and up-regulation of natriuretic peptide synthesis, which are physiological features for cardiac hypertrophy, are strongly inhibited in transgenic mice with a cardiac expression of Erk2T188S after two weeks of sustained isoproterenol treatment. It could further be shown in this work that b-AR mediated cardiac hypertrophy requires two distinct pathways initiated by Gs-protein activation: the canonical phosphorylation of Erk1/2 via adenylyl cyclase and the direct interaction of released bg-subunits with activated Erk1/2. Coincidence of both events leads to Erk2Thr188-phosphorylation, which activates then different transcription factors responsible for cardiac hypertrophy. Sequestration of bg-subunits by overexpression of the C-terminus of GRK2 bark-ct and inhibition of adenylyl cyclase efficiently reduced the hypertrophic response to isoproterenol, whereas direct activation of AC by forskolin failed to induce Erk2Thr188-phosphorylation and cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. These findings may help to develop new therapeutic strategies for the prevention of cardiac hypertrophy and maladaptive remodeling of the heart.
The determination of a covalent binding of radioactive chemieals to DNA in intact mammalian organisms is proposedas a short-term test for carcinogenicity. The effectiveness of covalent binding to rat liver DNA correlates well with the hepatocarcinogenicity known from long-term bioassays. The binding indices range over more than five orders of rriagnitude between the strongest hepatocarcinogen aflatoxin B 1 and the limit of detection of a binding with 100 f-LCi 14C-labelled chemical. The order of magnitude of binding is therefore a surprisingly good quantitative measure for carcinogenicity. The pattern of DNA binding sites is important especially for small alkylating agents where the determination of total binding might indicate a higher carcinogenic potency than is actually observed.
The covalent binding of [3H]aflatoxin B1 (AF) to liver DNA was determined, 6 h after oral administration to male rabbits. A Covalent Binding Index, CBI (flmol AF/mol DNA-P)/(mmol AF/kg b. w.) = 8,500 was found. Pretreatment of rabbits with AF coupled to bovine serum albumin in Freund's adjuvant led to the production of AF-directed antibodies. Administration of [3H]AF to such immunized rabbits resulted in a CJH of only 2,500, i.e., the iiDJ{.lUnization provided a protection by a factor of more than 3. Although this is encouraging evidence for the potential of active immunization against genotoxic carcinogens, a nurober of pointswill have to be clarified, such as the time course for the DNA binding and the question of a possible shift to other target cells.