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• Die Modellpflanze der Pflanzenphysiologen, Arabidopsis thaliana, besitzt mindestens 15 verschiedene kaliumselektive Kanäle, von denen 5 der Strukturklasse der Tandemporen-Kaliumkanäle angehören und daher TPK-Kanäle genannt werden. • Tandemporenkanäle findet man nur bei eukaryontischen Organismen. Die pflanzlichen Tandemporen Kaliumkanäle haben einen gemeinsamen phylogenetischen Ursprung und unterscheiden sich von den Tierischen und denen der Pilze und Einzeller. Die pflanzlichen TPK-Kanäle lassen sich wiederum in die TPK1-Unterfamilie und die TPK2-Unterfamilie unterteilen. Die weitere Evolution der TPK2-Unterfamilie von A. thaliana, TPK2, TPK3, TPK4 und TPK5, lässt sich eindeutig auf bestimmte Duplikationsereignisse im Genom von A. thaliana und dessen Ahnen zurückführen. Auch der Ein-Poren Kaliumkanal KCO3 geht sehr wahrscheinlich auf die Duplikation des TPK2 und einer anschließenden Deletion und nicht auf einen der prokaryontischen Ein-Poren-Kaliumkanal-Prototypen zurück. • Vier der A. thaliana TPK-Kanäle (TPK1, 2, 3 und 5) lokalisieren in der Vakuolenmembran, während einer, TPK4, zum großen Teil im ER, aber auch in der Plasmamembran zu finden ist. Die Translokation des TPK1 folgt dem sekretorischen Pfad vom ER, durch den Golgi und möglichen intermediären Kompartimenten hin zur Membran der lytischen Vakuole. Von entscheidender Bedeutung ist dabei der zytoplasmatische Carboxy-Terminus (CT) des TPK1. Deletionsmutanten des TPK1 CT zeigen, dass die Translokation mindestens zwei Sortierungsschritten, am Ausgang des ER und des Golgi, unterliegt. Fehlt der CT komplett bleibt der Kanal im ER. Die Sortierungssignale des TPK1 CT konnten auf die EF-Hand Domäne I eingegrenzt werden. Anschließende Punktmutationen in diesem Bereich konnten zeigen, dass TPK1 in der eigentlich für die Ca2+ Bindung zuständigen Domäne ein di-azidisches ER-Export Motiv bestehend aus Asparaginsäure, Leucin und Glutaminsäure enthält. Andere Arbeiten legen nahe, dass der Mechanismus des ER-exports von TPK1 auf der Interaktion mit COPII Vesikelhüllproteinen beruht; TPK1 also in Vesikel sortiert wird, die sich am ER abschnüren und mit dem cis-Golgi fusionieren. Der Vergleich mit anderen pflanzlichen TPK Kanälen lässt vermuten, dass TPK1 Orthologe, nicht aber die A. thaliana Homologen ein di-azidisches ER-Exportmotiv besitzen. Die Translokation des TPK3 erwies sich dementsprechend als unabhängig von dessen CT. Weitere Experimente schließen außerdem eine Beteiligung der 14-3-3 Bindung an der Translokation aus. • TPK4 ist der einzige TPK der heterolog in Xenopus Oozyten funktionell exprimiert werden kann. Wie Mutationen an einem essentiellen Aspartat (Asp86, Asp200) in der Pore zeigten, sind beide tandem repetierten Porendomänen einer Kanaluntereinheiten an der Porenbildung beteiligt. Somit formt sich TPK4 ähnlich wie die tierischen TPK-Kanäle voraussichtlich aus zwei Untereinheiten. Ein Austausch der zweiten Porendomäne von TPK4 konnte zeigen, dass TPK2, TPK3 und TPK5, mit ihrer zweiten Porendomäne und TPK4 mit seiner ersten Porendomäne den TPK4 zu einem funktionellen Kaliumkanal komplementieren können. Da keine der TPK4 Eigenschaften, außer geringfügig die relative Permeabilität für Rb+, verändert wurde, kann man absehen, dass die homologen TPK2, TPK3 und TPK5 als instantan aktivierte, spannungsunabhängige Kaliumkanäle der Vakuolenmembran fungieren. Dazu kommt wahrscheinlich ähnlich wie bei TPK1 ein 14-3-3 und Ca2+ abhängiges Öffnen und Schließen. • Weiterführende elektrophysiologische Untersuchungen am TPK4 zeigten eine Beteiligung einer transmembranen Asparaginsäure (Asp110) an der Kaliumpermeation und der schwachen Einwärtsgleichrichtung. Der Aspartatrest ist in die wassergefüllte Aussparung der zytoplasmatischen Porenhälfte orientiert. Damit kann er über ionische Wechselwirkungen sowohl Kalium in der Pore konzentrieren als auch potentielle Kanalblocker wie Mg2+ oder Polyamine binden. Die Konservierung des Aspartats unter anderem bei TPK2, TPK3 und TPK5 deutet daraufhin, dass auch die vakuolären TPK-Kanäle eine Einwärtsgleichrichtung vermitteln, die auf einem spannungsabhängigen Block von zytoplasmatischer Seite basiert. • Im Gegensatz zum zytoplasmatischen Block ist das Schließen des TPK4 durch zytoplasmatische Ansäuerung spannungsunabhängig und ist daher von einer Protonierungsreaktion abhängig. Über zahlreiche Deletionen und Chimären des TPK4 wurde der Bereich, in dem sich pH-Sensor und pH-Tor befinden, auf den Bereich zwischen transmembranen und zytoplasmatischen Domänen eingegrenzt. Darüber hinaus fungieren Histidine nicht als pH-Sensor.
Adding interactions to topological (non-)trivial free fermion systems can in general have four different effects: (i) In symmetry protected topological band insulators, the correlations may lead to the spontaneous breaking of some protecting symmetries by long-range order that gaps the topological boundary modes. (ii) In free fermion (semi-)metal, the interaction could vice versa also generate long-range order that in turn induces a topological mass term and thus generates non-trivial phases dynamically. (iii) Correlation might reduce the topological classification of free fermion systems by allowing adiabatic deformations between states of formerly distinct phases. (iv) Interaction can generate long-range entangled topological order in states such as quantum spin liquids or fractional quantum Hall states that cannot be represented by non-interacting systems. During the course of this thesis, we use numerically exact quantum Monte Carlo algorithms to study various model systems that (potentially) represent one of the four scenarios, respectively.
First, we investigate a two-dimensional $d_{xy}$-wave, spin-singlet superconductor, which is relevant for high-$T_c$ materials such as the cuprates. This model represents nodal topological superconductors and exhibits chiral flat-band edge states that are protected by time-reversal and translational invariance. We introduce the conventional Hubbard interaction along the edge in order to study their stability with respect to correlations and find ferromagnetic order in case of repulsive interaction as well as charge-density-wave order and/or additional $i$s-wave pairing for attractive couplings. A mean-field analysis that, for the first time, is formulated in terms of the Majorana edge modes suggests that any order has normal and superconducting contributions. For example, the ferromagnetic order appears in linear superposition with triplet pairing. This finding is well confirmed by the numerically exact quantum Monte Carlo investigation.
Second, we consider spinless electrons on a two-dimensional Lieb lattice that are subject to nearest-neighbor Coulomb repulsion. The low energy modes of the free fermion part constitute a spin-$1$ Dirac cone that might be gapped by several mass terms. One option breaks time-reversal symmetry and generates a topological Chern insulator, which mainly motivated this study. We employ two flavors of quantum Monte Carlo methods and find instead the formation of charge-density-wave order that breaks particle-hole symmetry. Additionally, due to sublattices of unequal size in Lieb lattices, this induces a finite chemical potential that drives the system away from half-filling. We argue that this mechanism potentially extends the range of solvable models with finite doping by coupling the Lieb lattice to the target system of interest.
Third, we construct a system with four layers of a topological insulators and interlayer correlation that respects one independent time-reversal and a unitary $\mathbb{Z}_2$ symmetry. Previous studies claim a reduced topological classification from $\mathbb{Z}$ to $\mathbb{Z}_4$, for example by gapping out degenerate zero modes in topological defects once the correlation term is designed properly. Our interaction is chosen according to this analysis such that there should exist an adiabatic deformation between states whose topological invariant differs by $\Delta w=\pm4$ in the free fermion classification. We use a projective quantum Monte Carlo algorithm to determine the ground-state phase diagram and find a symmetry breaking regime, in addition to the non-interacting semi-metal, that separates the free fermion insulators. Frustration reduces the size of the long-range ordered region until it is replaced by a first order phase transition. Within the investigated range of parameters, there is no adiabatic path deforming the formerly distinct free fermion states into each other. We conclude that the prescribed reduction rules, which often use the bulk-boundary correspondence, are necessary but not sufficient and require a more careful investigation.
Fourth, we study conduction electron on a honeycomb lattice that form a Dirac semi-metal Kondo coupled to spin-1/2 degrees of freedom on a Kagome lattice. The local moments are described by a variant of the Balents-Fisher-Girvin model that has been shown to host a ferromagnetic phase and a $\mathbb{Z}_2$ spin liquid at strong frustration. Here, we report the first numerical exact quantum Monte Carlo simulation of the Kondo-coupled system that does not exhibit the negative-sign problem. When the local moments form a ferromagnet, the Kondo coupling induces an anti-ferromagnetic mass term in the conduction-electron system. At large frustration, the Dirac cone remains massless and the spin system forms a $\mathbb{Z}_2$ spin liquid. Owing to the odd number of spins per unit cell, this constitutes a non-Fermi liquid that violates Luttinger's theorem which relates the Fermi volume to the particle density in a Fermi liquid. This phase is a specific realization of the so called 'fractional Fermi liquid` as it has been first introduced in the context of heavy fermion models.
Anthropogenic activities are causing air pollution. Amongst air pollutants, tropospheric ozone is a major threat to human health and ecosystem functioning. In this dissertation, I present three studies that aimed at increasing our knowledge on how plant exposure to ozone affects its reproduction and its interactions with insect herbivores and pollinators.
For this purpose, a new fumigation system was built and placed in a greenhouse. The annual plant Sinapis arvensis (wild mustard) was used as the model plant.
Plants were exposed to either 0 ppb (control) or 120 ppb of ozone, for variable amounts of time and at different points of their life cycle. After fumigation, plants were exposed to herbivores or pollinators in the greenhouse, or to both groups of insects in the field.
My research shows that ozone affected reproductive performance differently, depending on the timing of exposure: plants exposed at earlier ages had their reproductive fitness increased, while plants exposed later in their life cycle showed a tendency for reduced reproductive fitness. Plant phenology was a key factor influencing reproductive fitness: ozone accelerated flowering and increased the number of flowers produced by plants exposed at early ages, while plants exposed to ozone at later ages tended to have fewer flowers. On the other hand, the ozone-mediated changes in plant-insect interactions had little impact on plant reproductive success.
The strongest effect of ozone on plant-pollinator interactions was the change in the number of flower visits received per plant, which was strongly linked to the number of open flowers. This means that, as a rule, exposure of plants to ozone early in the life cycle resulted in a higher number of pollinator visits, while exposure later in the life cycle resulted in fewer flower visits by potential pollinators. An exception was observed: the higher number of visits performed by large syrphid flies to young ozone-exposed plants than to the respective control plants went beyond the increase in the number of open flowers in those plants. Also, honeybees spent more time per flower in plants exposed to ozone than on control plants, while other pollinators spent similar amounts of time in control and ozone-exposed plants. This guild-dependent preference for ozone-exposed plants may be due to species-specific preferences related to changes in the quality and quantity of floral rewards.
In the field, ozone-exposed plants showed only a tendency for increased colonization by sucking herbivores and slightly more damage by chewing herbivores than control plants. On the other hand, in the greenhouse experiment, Pieris brassicae butterflies preferred control plants over ozone-exposed plants as oviposition sites. Eggs laid on ozone-exposed plants took longer to hatch, but the chances of survival were higher. Caterpillars performed better in control plants than in ozone-exposed plants, particularly when the temperature was high.
Most of the described effects were dependent on the duration and timing of the ozone exposure and the observed temperature, with the strongest effects being observed for longer exposures and higher temperatures. Furthermore, the timing of exposure altered the direction of the effects.
The expected climate change provides ideal conditions for further increases in tropospheric ozone concentrations, therefore for stronger effects on plants and plant-insect interactions. Acceleration of flowering caused by plant exposure to ozone may put plant-pollinator interactions at risk by promoting desynchronization between plant and pollinator activities. Reduced performance of caterpillars feeding on ozone-exposed plants may weaken herbivore populations. On the other hand, the increased plant reproduction that results from exposing young plants to ozone may be a source of good news in the field of horticulture, when similar results would be achieved in high-value crops. However, plant response to ozone is highly species-specific. In fact, Sinapis arvensis is considered a weed and the advantage conferred by ozone exposure may increase its competitiveness, with negative consequences for crops or plant communities in general. Overall, plant exposure to ozone might constitute a threat for the balance of natural and agro-ecosystems.
In 2020, cancer was the leading cause of death worldwide, accounting for nearly 10 million deaths. Lung cancer was the most common cancer, with 2.21 million cases per year in both sexes. This non-homogeneous disease is further subdivided into small cell lung cancer (SCLC, 15%) and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC, 85%). By 2023, the American Cancer Society estimates that NSCLC will account for 13% of all new cancer cases and 21% of all estimated cancer deaths. In recent years, the treatment of patients with NSCLC has improved with the development of new therapeutic interventions and the advent of targeted and personalised therapies. However, these advances have only marginally improved the five-year survival rate, which remains alarmingly low for patients with NSCLC. This observation highlights the importance of having more appropriate experimental and preclinical models to recapitulate, identify and test novel susceptibilities in NSCLC. In recent years, the Trp53fl/fl KRaslsl-G12D/wt mouse model developed by Tuveson, Jacks and Berns has been the main in vivo model used to study NSCLC. This model mimics ADC and SCC to a certain extent. However, it is limited in its ability to reflect the genetic complexity of NSCLC. In this work, we use CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing with targeted mutagenesis and gene deletions to recapitulate the conditional model. By comparing the Trp53fl/fl KRaslsl- G12D/wt with the CRISPR-mediated Trp53mut KRasG12D, we demonstrated that both showed no differences in histopathological features, morphology, and marker expression. Furthermore, next-generation sequencing revealed a very high similarity in their transcriptional profile. Adeno-associated virus-mediated tumour induction and the modular design of the viral vector allow us to introduce additional mutations in a timely manner. CRISPR-mediated mutation of commonly mutated tumour suppressors in NSCLC reliably recapitulated the phenotypes described in patients in the animal model. Lastly, the dual viral approach could induce the formation of lung tumours not only in constitutive Cas9 expressing animals, but also in wildtype animals. Thus, the implementation of CRISPR genome editing can rapidly advance the repertoire of in vivo models for NSCLC research. Furthermore, it can reduce the necessity of extensive breeding.
Seit ihrem Aufkommen beschäftigt sich die Organisationsforschung mit dem Antagonismus von Organisation und Individuum, ohne jedoch immer eindeutig fassen zu können, worin genau der Unterschied zwischen beiden besteht. Wollte Taylor den „Horden-Menschen“ noch durch wissenschaftliche Betriebsführung domestizieren und in den Mechanismus der Organisation integrieren, erkannte Barnard bereits, dass nur ein gewisser Teil des Individu-ums in Organisationen kommunikativ erreichbar ist und ersann vor diesem Hintergrund eine Führungstheorie mit dem Ziel, den Bereich erwartbarer Aufgaben-Kommunikation auf ein Maximum auszudehnen und hierdurch die „zone of indifference“ der Mitarbeiter so zu er-weitern, dass selbige möglichst viele Aufgaben und Arbeiten als Teil ihrer Organisations-persönlichkeit internalisieren.
Erst mit den Arbeiten Luhmanns in den 1960er Jahren war man jedoch in der Lage, Informa-lität – also auf personale Erwartungen abzielende Kommunikation – nicht mehr allein als Störung oder Dysfunktionalität, sondern vielmehr als Folge des Umgangs mit der Formal-struktur des Organisationssystems zu beschreiben und die beiden Begriffe folglich in einen funktionalen Zusammenhang zu bringen.
Innerhalb dieses theoriegeschichtlichen Rahmens geht unsere Untersuchung der Frage nach, in welcher Weise Führung im Kontext des Spannungsfeldes zwischen Formalität und Infor-malität operiert und welche Implikationen neuere Semantiken der Managementliteratur (z.B. „die authentische Führungskraft“, „Vertrauen“ oder „Menschsein“), die insbesondere auf eine Personalisierung des Mitarbeiters abzielen, dabei generieren. Hierdurch können wir zeigen, dass Führung mittels informaler Kommunikation, die wir als „Umweghandeln“ be-zeichnen, ein Spiel mit der Grenze zwischen System und Umwelt – also Mitarbeiter – etab-liert, wodurch sie in der Lage ist, den Mitarbeiter als Beobachtung der Differenz zwischen System und Umwelt in das System wieder einzuführen und hierdurch informaler Kommuni-kation Anschlussfähigkeit zu verleihen. Letztlich wird für die Organisation so genau das kommunikativ anschlussfähig, was formal eigentlich immer ausgeschlossen wurde – die Person des Mitarbeiters.
Der Thymus ist das zentrale Organ der T-Zell-Reifung. T-Vorläuferzellen aus dem Knochenmark wandern in den Thymus ein und entwickeln sich dort zu naiven, nicht-autoreaktiven T-Zellen unterschiedlicher Spezifitäten, wie beispielsweise T-Helfer-Zellen oder T-Effektor-Zellen. Ab der Pubertät wird das Thymusgewebe zunehmend mit Fettgewebe durchsetzt, wodurch der funktionelle Anteil des Thymusgewebes ab-nimmt. Beim alternden Menschen wurde eine Zunahme an Infektionen, Autoimmun-krankheiten und Neoplasien festgestellt. Dies wird mit dem Begriff der Immunalte-rung beschrieben. Die Rolle der verminderten Thymusfunktion bei der Immunalte-rung ist aktuell Gegenstand vielfältiger Forschungen. In dieser Arbeit wurde mittels eines systematischen Reviews die Frage beleuchtet, ob nach Thymektomie die Rate an Infektionen, Autoimmunerkrankungen und Neoplasien steigt und folglich, ob die Thymektomie ein Modell für vorzeitige Immunalterung darstellt. Zudem wurde unter-sucht, ob die Thymektomie einen Einfluss auf die zellulären Kompartimente des Im-munsystems hat. Es wurden sowohl Tierstudien als auch Humanstudien berücksich-tigt.
Bei der Erstellung des Reviews wurde nach dem PRISMA-Statement vorgegangen. Die wissenschaftlichen Datenbanken PubMed und Cochrane Library wurden mittels einer zuvor festgelegten Suchstrategie nach Publikationen in deutscher und engli-scher Sprache ab dem Jahr 1975 systematisch durchsucht. Diese Suche lieferte ins-gesamt 6304 Ergebnisse. Nach weiter Selektion durch Beurteilung von Abstracts und Volltexten wurden schließlich 97 Studien in den Ergebnissteil dieser Arbeit aufge-nommen. Diese Studien wurden in Form von Datenextraktionstabellen katalogisiert und ihre interne Studienqualität anhand zuvor festgelegter Kriterien bewertet.
Aufgrund der großen Heterogenität der Studiendesigns und der inhaltlichen Schwer-punkte der Studien erfolgte eine qualitative Synthese der Ergebnisse. Einzelne Stu-dien berichteten vom Auftreten opportunistischer Infektionen nach Thymektomie. Andere wiederum konnten keinen Anstieg der Infektionsrate feststellen. Die Immun-antwort auf Neoantigene bei Impfung scheint bei thymektomierten Individuen beein-flusst. Das Auftreten von diversen Autoimmunkrankheiten wurde nach Durchführung einer Thymektomie beschrieben. Einzelne Studien kommen zu dem Schluss, dass die Rate an Neoplasien nach Thymektomie nicht erhöht ist. Um wissenschaftlich hin-reichend fundierte Aussagen über diese Themenschwerpunkte treffen zu können, bedarf es jedoch zukünftig Langzeitbeobachtungsstudien an thymektomierten Indivi-duen mit nicht-thymektomierten Kontrollgruppen.
Eine mathematisch-statistische Analyse wurde für den Einfluss der Thymektomie auf das zelluläre Immunsystem durchgeführt. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Zahl der CD3+ CD4+ und CD8+ Zellen im Anteil der Gesamtlymphozyten bei thy-mektomierten Individuen im Vergleich zur nicht-thymektomierten Kontrollgruppe sta-tistisch signifikant vermindert ist.
Die Ergebnisse dieses Reviews unterstützen daher die These, dass Thymektomie eine vorzeitige Immunalterung induziert. Jedoch ist weitere experimentelle Grundla-genforschung, sowie klinische Forschung an thymektomierten Individuen notwendig, um dies weiter zu untermauern.
Die Antikörperavidität beschreibt die Summe der Bindungsstärke eines polyvalenten Antikörpers zu einem multivalenten Antigen. Beim ersten Kontakt des Immunsys-tems mit einem fremden Antigen ist die Avidität der Antikörper zunächst gering. Es folgt ein Vorgang, der als Reifung der Immunantwort beschrieben wird und in dessen Verlauf Antikörper mit höherer Bindungsstärke selektioniert werden.
Der Stellenwert der Bestimmung der Antikörperavidität ergibt sich aus Schwachstel-len der konventionellen Serodiagnostik. So kann die Bestimmung von IgM- und IgG-Antikörpern bei Vorliegen einer Infektion Rückschlüsse zulassen, ob es sich um eine primäre oder sekundäre Infektion handelt oder ob die Infektion akut oder chronisch ist. Allerdings kann es beispielweise durch polyklonale B-Zell-Reaktivierung oder per-sistierende IgM-Antikörper auch zu unklaren Ergebnissen kommen.
Cellular growth and proliferation are among the most important processes for cells and
organisms. One of the major determinants of these processes is the amount of proteins
and consequently also the amount of ribosomes. Their synthesis involves several hundred
proteins and four different ribosomal RNA species, is highly coordinated and very
energy-demanding. However, the molecular mechanims of transcriptional regulation of
the protein-coding genes involved, is only poorly understood in mammals.
In this thesis, unbiased genome-wide knockout reporter screens were performed, aiming
to identify previously unknown transcriptional regulators of ribosome biogenesis
factors (RiBis), which are important for the assembly and maturation of ribosomes,
and ribosomal proteins (RPs), which are ribosomal components themself. With that
approach and follow-up (validation) experiments, ALDOA and RBM8A among others,
could be identified as regulators of ribosome biogenesis.
Depletion of the glycolytic enzyme ALDOA led to a downregulation of RiBi- and RPpromoter
driven reporters on protein and transcript level, as well as to a downregulation
of ribosome biogenesis gene transcripts and of mRNAs of other genes important for
proliferation.
Reducing the amount of the exon junction complex protein RBM8A, led to a more prominent
downregulation of one of the fluorescent reporters, but this regulation was independent
of the promoter driving the expression of the reporter. However, acute protein
depletion experiments in combination with nascent RNA sequencing (4sU-Seq)
revealed, that mainly cytosolic ribosomal proteins (CRPs) were downregulated upon
acute RBM8A withdrawal. ChIP experiments showed RBM8A binding to promoters of
RP genes, but also to other chromatin regions. Total POL II or elongating and initiating
POL II levels were not altered upon acute RBM8A depletion.
These data provide a starting point for further research on the mechanisms of transcriptional
regulation of RP and RiBi genes in mammals.
This thesis contributes to several issues in the context of SDN and NFV, with an emphasis on performance and management.
The main contributions are guide lines for operators migrating to software-based networks, as well as an analytical model for the packet processing in a Linux system using the Kernel NAPI.
Bees have had an intimate relationship with humans for millennia, as pollinators of fruit, vegetable and other crops and suppliers of honey, wax and other products. This relationship has led to an extensive understanding of their ecology and behavior. One of the most comprehensively understood species is the Western honeybee, Apis mellifera. Our understanding of sex-specific investment in other bees, however, has remained superficial. Signals and cues employed in bee foraging and mating behavior are reasonably well understood in only a handful of species and functional adaptations are described in some species. I explored the variety of sensory adaptations in three model systems within the bees. Females share a similar ecology and similar functional morphologies are to be expected. Males, engage mainly in mating behavior. A variety of male mating strategies has been described which differ in their spatiotemporal features and in the signals and cues involved, and thus selection pressures. As a consequence, males’ sensory systems are more diverse than those of females. In the first part I studied adaptations of the visual system in honeybees. I compared sex and caste-specific eye morphology among 5 species (Apis andreniformis, A. cerana, A. dorsata, A. florea, A. mellifera). I found a strong correlation between body size and eye size in both female castes. Queens have a relatively reduced visual system which is in line with the reduced role of visual perception in their life history. Workers differed in eye size and functional morphology, which corresponds to known foraging differences among species. In males, the eyes are conspicuously enlarged in all species, but a disproportionate enlargement was found in two species (A. dorsata, A. florea). I further demonstrate a correlation between male visual parameters and mating flight time, and propose that light intensities play an important role in the species-specific timing of mating flights. In the second study I investigated eye morphology differences among two phenotypes of drones in the Western honeybee. Besides normal-sized drones, smaller drones are reared in the colony, and suffer from reduced reproductive success. My results suggest that the smaller phenotype does not differ in spatial resolution of its visual system, but suffers from reduced light and contrast sensitivity which may exacerbate the reduction in reproductive success caused by other factors. In the third study I investigated the morphology of the visual system in bumblebees. I explored the association between male eye size and mating behavior and investigated the diversity of compound eye morphology among workers, queens and males in 11 species. I identified adaptations of workers that correlate with distinct foraging differences among species. Bumblebee queens must, in contrast to honeybees, fulfill similar tasks as workers in the first part of their life, and correspondingly visual parameters are similar among both female castes. Enlarged male eyes are found in several subgenera and have evolved several times independently within the genus, which I demonstrate using phylogenetic informed statistics. Males of these species engage in visually guided mating behavior. I find similarities in the functional eye morphology among large-eyed males in four subgenera, suggesting convergent evolution as adaptation to similar visual tasks. In the remaining species, males do not differ significantly from workers in their eye morphology. In the fourth study I investigated the sexual dimorphism of the visual system in a solitary bee species. Males of Eucera berlandi patrol nesting sites and compete for first access to virgin females. Males have enlarged eyes and better spatial resolution in their frontal eye region. In a behavioral study, I tested the effect of target size and speed on male mate catching success. 3-D reconstructions of the chasing flights revealed that angular target size is an important parameter in male chasing behavior. I discuss similarities to other insects that face similar problems in visual target detection. In the fifth study I examined the olfactory system of E. berlandi. Males have extremely long antennae. To investigate the anatomical grounds of this elongation I studied antennal morphology in detail in the periphery and follow the sexual dimorphism into the brain. Functional adaptations were found in males (e.g. longer antennae, a multiplication of olfactory sensilla and receptor neurons, hypertrophied macroglomeruli, a numerical reduction of glomeruli in males and sexually dimorphic investment in higher order processing regions in the brain), which were similar to those observed in honeybee drones. The similarities and differences are discussed in the context of solitary vs. eusocial lifestyle and the corresponding consequences for selection acting on males.
Honeybees are among the few animals that rely on eusociality to survive. While the
task of queen and drones is only reproduction, all other tasks are accomplished by sterile
female worker bees. Different tasks are mostly divided by worker bees of different ages
(temporal polyethism). Young honeybees perform tasks inside the hive like cleaning and
nursing. Older honeybees work at the periphery of the nest and fulfill tasks like guarding
the hive entrance. The oldest honeybees eventually leave the hive to forage for resources
until they die. However, uncontrollable circumstances might force the colony to adapt or
perish. For example, the introduced Varroa destructor mite or the deformed wing virus
might erase a lot of in-hive bees. On the other hand, environmental events might kill a
lot of foragers, leaving the colony with no new food intake. Therefore, adaptability of
task allocation must be a priority for a honeybee colony.
In my dissertation, I employed a wide range of behavioral, molecular biological and analytical techniques to unravel the underlying molecular and physiological mechanisms of
the honeybee division of labor, especially in conjunction with honeybee malnourishment.
The genes AmOARα1, AmTAR1, Amfor and vitellogenin have long been implied to
be important for the transition from in-hive tasks to foraging. I have studied in detail
expression of all of these genes during the transition from nursing to foraging to understand how their expression patterns change during this important phase of life. My focus
lay on gene expression in the honeybee brain and fat body. I found an increase in the
AmOARα1 and the Amforα mRNA expression with the transition from in-hive tasks to
foraging and a decrease in expression of the other genes in both tissues. Interestingly,
I found the opposite pattern of the AmOARα1 and AmTAR1 mRNA expression in the
honeybee fat body during orientation flights. Furthermore, I closely observed juvenile
hormone titers and triglyceride levels during this crucial time. Juvenile hormone titers
increased with the transition from in-hive tasks to foraging and triglyceride levels decreased.
Furthermore, in-hive bees and foragers also differ on a behavioral and physiological level.
For example, foragers are more responsive towards light and sucrose. I proposed that
modulation via biogenic amines, especially via octopamine and tyramine, can increase
or decrease the responsiveness of honeybees. For that purpose, in-hive bees and foragers were injected with both biogenic amines and the receptor response was quantified
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using electroretinography. In addition, I studied the behavioral response of the bees to
light using a phototaxis assay. Injecting octopamine increased the receptor response and
tyramine decreased it. Also, both groups of honeybees showed an increased phototactic
response when injected with octopamine and a decreased response when injected with
tyramine, independent of locomotion.
Additionally, nutrition has long been implied to be a driver for division of labor. Undernourished honeybees are known to speed up their transition to foragers, possibly to
cope with the missing resources. Furthermore, larval undernourishment has also been
implied to speed up the transition from in-hive bees to foragers, due to increasing levels
of juvenile hormone titers in adult honeybees after larval starvation. Therefore, I reared
honeybees in-vitro to compare the hatched adult bees of starved and overfed larvae to
bees reared under the standard in-vitro rearing diet. However, first I had to investigate
whether the in-vitro rearing method affects adult honeybees.
I showed effects of in-vitro rearing on behavior, with in-vitro reared honeybees foraging
earlier and for a shorter time than hive reared honeybees. Yet, nursing behavior was
unaffected.
Afterwards, I investigated the effects of different larval diets on adult honeybee workers.
I found no effects of malnourishment on behavioral or physiological factors besides a
difference in weight. Honeybee weight increased with increasing amounts of larval food,
but the effect seemed to vanish after a week.
These results show the complexity and adaptability of the honeybee division of labor.
They show the importance of the biogenic amines octopamine and tyramine and of the
corresponding receptors AmOARα1 and AmTAR1 in modulating the transition from inhive bees to foragers. Furthermore, they show that in-vitro rearing has no effects on
nursing behavior, but that it speeds up the transition from nursing to foraging, showing
strong similarities to effects of larval pollen undernourishment. However, larval malnourishment showed almost no effects on honeybee task allocation or physiology. It seems
that larval malnourishment can be easily compensated during the early lifetime of adult
honeybees.