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Young adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were given 30 \(\mu\)mol/kg body weight [\(^{14}\)C]methylamine hydrochloride and 700 \(\mu\)mol/ kg body weight sodium nilrite by oral gavage. DNA isolated from the stomach and from the first 15 cm of the smaß intestine was methylated, containing 7-methylguanine (7mG) at a level of one 7mG molecule per 5x10\8^6\) and lx10\(^7\) nucleotides, respectively. No 7mG was found fn the liver at a limit of detection of one 7mG molecule per 2xl0\(^8\) nucleotides. ln a second experiment, the excised stomachs were incubated with deoxyribonuclease before the isolation of the DNA in order to degrade DNA in the Iumen and in the uppermost lining cells. This treatment resulted in a 30% decrease in the yield of DNA and a 90% reduction in the level of 7mG formation. The results show that nitrosation of a primary alkylamine yields a precursor of an alkylating agent which has a long enough lifetime to diffuse towards and react with intracellular DNA. A correlation of DNA methylation in the stomach with the corresponding tumor formation by the methylating carcinogen N-methyi-N'-nitro-N-nitroso-guanidine was used to estimate the roJe of DNA damage resulting from endogenous nitrosation of dietary methylamine in man. It was concluded that the risk resulting from this single amine must be negligible bot that a similar evaluation of other primary amines is required before the over-aU role of primary amine nitrosation in the etiology of human gastric cancer can be assessed.
Formaldehydeis an electrophilic molecule able to crosslink DNA and protein. It has been found to induce tumors in the nasal epithelium in rodents. The safety margin between the maximum tolerated FA concentration in the work place and the concentration found to be tumorigenic in animal studies is very small. Because FA is produced endogenously as a result of a variety of oxidative demethylations, the assessment of the tumor risk from exogenaus FA exposure has tobe related quantitatively to the level of DNA-protein crosslinks induced by endogenaus FA generation. It is reported here that the high level of endogenaus FA formed in the liver after a large dose of methanol or of aminopyrine did not lead to any observable increase in DNA-protein crosslinks. Using positive and negative control data from in vitro incubations of liver homogenate with FA or methanol it is estimated that the endogenous level of DNA damage in the liver must be more than three orders of magnitude below the damage observed at tumorigenic concentrations for the rat nose. The fact that FA is formed endogenously cannot, therefore, be used to claim that exogenous FA merely leads to a negligible increase in DNA damage.
Investigation of covalent DNA binding in vivo provided evidence for whether a test substance can be activated to metabolites able to reach and react with DNA in an intact organism. Fora comparison of DNA binding potencies of various compounds tested under different conditions, a normalization of the DNA lesion with respect to the dose is useful. A covalent binding index, CBI = (\(\mu\)mol chemical bound per mol DNA nucleotide )/(mmol chemical administered per kg body weight) can be determined for each compound. Whether covalent DNA binding results in tumor formation is dependent upon additional factors specific to the cell type. Thus far, all compounds which bind covalently to liver DNA in vivo have also proven tobe carcinogenic in a long-term study, although the liver was not necessarily the target organ for tumor growth. With appropriate techniques, DNA binding can be determined in a dose range which may be many orders of magnitude below the dose Ievels required for significant tumor induction in a long-term bioassay. Rat liver DNA bindingwas proportional to the dose of aflatoxin B1 afteroral administration of a dose between 100 \(\mu\)g/kg and 1 ng/kg. The lowest dose was in the range of generat human daily exposures. Demonstration of a lack of liver DNA binding (CBI<0.1) in vivo for a carcinogenic, nonmutagenic compound is a strong indication for an indirect mechanism of carcinogenic action. Carcinogens of this class do not directly produce a change in gene structure or function but disturb a critical biochemical control mechanism, such as protection from oxygen radicals, control of cell division, etc. Ultimately, genetic changes are produced indirectly or accumulate from endogenaus genotoxic agents. The question of why compounds which act via indirect mechanisms are more likely to exhibitanonlinear rangein the dose-response curve as opposed to the directly genotoxic agents or processes is discussed.
It was the aim of this investigation to determine whether or not covalent binding of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) to rat liver DNA could be a mechanism of action contributing to the observed induction of liver tumors after lifetime feeding of rodents with high doses of DEHP. DEHP radiolabeled in different positionswas administered orally to female F344 rats with or without pretreatment for 4 weeks with 1% unlabeled DEHP in the diet. Livu DNA was isolated after 16 hr and analyzed for radioattivity. Administration of [\(^{14}\)C]carboxylate unabeled DEHP resulted in no measurable DNA radioactivity. With DEHP [\(^{14}\)C]· and [\(^{3}\)H]. labeled in the alcohol moiety as well as with 2-ethyl[1-\(^{14}\)C]hexanol, radioactivity was clearly measurable in the DNA. HPLC analysis of enzyme-degraded DNA relvealed that the normal nucleosides had incorporated radiolabel whereas no radioactivity was detectable in those fractions where the carcinogen-modified nucleoside adducts are expected. A quantitative evaluation of the negative data in terms of a Iimit of detection for a covalent binding Index (CBJ) indicates that covalent interaction with DNA is highly unlikely to be the mode of tumorigenic action of DEHP in rodents.
Metallothionein (MT) is a protein which contains 20 cysteine residues but no aromatic amino acids. It was tested whether treatment of male rats with the hepatocarcinogen diethylnitrosamine (DENA) could ethylate nucleic acids in such a way that protein variants containing measurable amounts of aromatic amino acid residues could be isolated from the livers of treated animals. To give a low Iimit of detection, the "wrong" amino acid precursors were administered in radiolabelled form at high Ievels of activity (7 mCi/kg each of [\(^3\)H]tyrosine and [\(^3\)H]phenylalanine). 11 \(\mu\)Ci/kg [\(^{14}\)C]cysteine was given as an intemal marker for MT biosynthesis. 6 h after amino acid administration, metallothionein (MT) was isolated from the liver and extensively purified. Afteracid hydrolysis and collection of Cys, Tyr, and Phe from an HPLC analysis of the amino acids, the \(^3\)H/\(^{14}\)C ratio was determined. The carcinogen-treated rats exhibited a significantly higher ratio than the vehicle-treated animals. This type of in vivo assay might find interesting applications in the investigation of nucleic acid alkylations as promutagenic lesions.
To date, all risk assessment studies on benzene have been based almost exclusively on epiderniological data. Wehave attempted a more integrated and quantitative evaluation of carcinogenic risk for hurnans, trying to utilize, in addition to the epidemiological data, all data available, specifically data on metabolism, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity in small rodents. An integrated evaluation of the globality of the available data seems to suggest a progressive saturation of metabolic capacity both for man and rodents between 10 and 100 ppm. The most susceptible target cells seem tobe different in humans (predominant induction of myelogenous leukemia) and small rodents (induction of a wide variety of tumors). Nevertheless, both epidemiological and experimental carcinogenicity data tend to indicate a flattening ofthe response for the highest dosages, again suggesting a general Saturation of mechanisms of metabolic activation, extended to different target tissues. From a quantitative point of view, the data suggest a carcinogenic potency at 10 ppm two to three times higher than that computable by a linear extrapolation from data in the 100 ppm range. These observations are in accord with the recent proposal of the European Economic Community of reducing benzene time-weighted average occupationallevels from 10 to 5 ppm.
A literature review has shown that the daily intakes of various N -nitroso-precursor classes in a typical European diet span five orders of magnitude. Amides in the form of protein, and guanidines in the form of creatine and creatinine, are the nitrosatable groups found most abundantly in the diet, approaching Ievels of 100 g/day and 1 gjday, respectively. Approximately 100 mg of primary amines and amino acids are consumed daily, whereas aryl amines, secondary amines and ureas appear to lie in the 1-10 mg range. The ease of nitrosation of each precursor was estimated, the reactivities being found to span seven orders of magnitude, with ureas at the top and amines at the bottom of the scale. From this infonnation and an assessment of the carcinogenicity of the resulting N-nitroso derivatives, the potential health risk due to gastric in vivo nitrosation was calculated. The combined effects of these risk variables were analysed using a simple mathematical model: Risk = [daily intake of precursor] x [gastric concentration of nitrite]\(^n\) x [nitrosatability rate constant} x [carcinogenicity of derivative]. The risk estimates for the various dietary components spanned nine orders of magnitude. Dietary ureas and aromatic amines combined with a high nitrite burden could pose as great a risk as the intake of preformed dimethylnitrosamine in the diet. In contrast, the risk posed by the in vivo nitrosation of primary and secondary amines is probably negligib1y small. The risk contribution by amides (including protein), guanidines and primary amino acids is intermediate between these two extremes. Thus three priorities for future work are a comprehensive study of the sources and Ievels of arylamines and ureas in the diet, determination of the carcinogenic potencies of key nitrosated products to replace the necessarily vague categories used so far, and the development of short-term in situ tests for studying the alkylating power or genotoxicity of N-nitroso compounds too unstable for inclusion in long-term studies.
Emodin (1,6,8-trihydroxy-3-methylanthraquinone), an important aglycone found in natural anthraquinone glycosides frequently used in Iaxative drugs, was mutagenic in the Salmonellajmammalian microsome assay (Ames test) with a specificity for strain TA1537. The mutagenic activity was activationdependent with an optimal amount of S9 from Aroclor 1254-treated male Sprague-Dawley rats of 20% in the S9 mix (v jv) for 10 p.g emodin per plate. Heat inactivation of the S9 for 30 min at 60 ° C prevented mutagenicity. The addition of the cytochrome P-448 inhibitor 7,8-benzoflavone (18.5 nmoles per plate) reduced the mutagenic activity of 5.0 p.g emodin per plate to about one third, whereas the P-450 inhibitor metyrapone (up to 1850 nmoles per plate) was without effect. To test whether a metabolite" binds covalently to Salmonella DNA, [10-\(^{14}\)C]emodin was radiosynthesized, large batches of bacteria were incubated with [10-\(^{14}\)C]emodin and DNA was isolated. [G- \(^{3}\)H]Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) was used as a positive control mutagen known to act via DNA binding. DNA obtained after aflatoxin treatment could be purified to constant specific activity. With emodin, the specific activity of DNA did not remain constant after repeated precipitations so that it is unlikely that the mutagenicity of emodin is due to covalent interaction of a metabolite with DNA. The antioxidants vitamin C and E or glutathione did not reduce the mutagenicity. Emodin was also negative with strain TA102. Thus, oxygen radicals are probably not involved. When emodin was incubated with S9 alone for up to 50 h before heat-inactivation of the enzymes and addition of bacteria, the mutagenic activity did not decrease. It is concluded that the mutagenicity of emodin is due to a chemically stable, oxidized metabolite forming physico-chemical associations with DNA, possibly of the intercalative type. In order to check whether an intact mammalian organism might be able to activate emodin to a DNA-binding metabolite, radiolabelled emodin was administered by oral gavage to male SD rats and liver DNA was isolated after 72 h. Very little radioactivity was associated with the DNA. Considering that DNA radioactivity could also be due to sources other than covalent interactions, an upper limit for the · covalent binding index, CBI = (p.moles chemical bound per moles DNA nucleotides)/(mmoles chemical administered per kg body weight) of 0.5 is deduced. This is 104 times below the CBI of AFB1. The demonstration of a lack of covalent interaction with DNA bothin Salmonellaandin rat liver is discussed in terms of a reduced hazard posed by emodin as a mutagenic drug in use in humans.
In order to investigate whether the Stimulation of liver DNA synthesis might be used to detect one class of hepatic tumor promoters, the incorporation of orally administered radiolabelled thymidine into liver DNA was detennined in rats and mice 24 h after a single oral gavage of test compounds at various dose Ievels. Three DNA-binding hepatocarcinogens, aflatoxin B1; benzidine and carbon tetrachloride, did not stimulate but rather inhibited DNA synthesis (not for CCla). Four hepatic tumor promoters, clofibrate, DDT, phenobarbital and thioacetamide, gave rise to a Stimulation in a dosedependent manner. Single oral doses between 0.02 and 0.3 mmol/kg were required to double the level of thymidine incorporation into liver DNA (= doubling dose, DD). Differentes between species or sex as obsprved in long-term carcinogenicity studies were reflected by a different stimulation of liver DNA synthesis. In agreement with the bioassay data, aldrin was positive only in male mice (DD = 0.007 mmol/kg) but not in male rats or female mice. 2,3, 7,8-TCDD was positive in male mice (DD = 10\(^{-6}\) mmol/kg) andin female rats (DD = 2 x 10\(^{-6}\) mmol/kg) but not in male rats. The assay was also able to distinguish between structural isomers with different carcinogenicities. [alpha]Hexachlorocyclohexane stimulated Iiver DNA synthesis with a doubling dose of about 0.2 mmol/kg in male rats whereas the [gamma]isomer was ineffective even at l mmol/kg. So far, only one result was inconsistent with carcinogenicity bioassay data. The different carcinogenicity of di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate (negative in rats) and di(2-ethylhe.xyl)phthalate (positive) was not detectable. 8oth plasticizers were positive in.this short-term system with DD's of 0. 7 mmol/kg for DEHA and 0.5 mmol/kg for DEHP. The proposed assay is discussed as an attempt to devise short-term assays for carcinogens not detected by the routine genotoxicity test systems.
DNA binding in vivo: (6,7-\(^3\)H]ß-trenbolone (ß-TBOH) was administered p.o. and i.p. to rats. After 8 or 16 h, DNA was isolated from the livers and purified to constant specific radioactivity. Enzymatic digestion to deoxyribonucleotides and separation by HPLC revealed about 90% ofthe DNA radioactivity eluting in the form of possible TBOH-nucleotide adducts. The extent of this genotoxicity, expressed in units of the Covalent Binding Index, CBI = (~mol TBOH bound per mol nucleotide)/(mmol TBOH administered per kg body weight) spanned from 8 t~ 17, i. e. was in the range found with weak genotoxic carcmogens. Ames test: low doses of ß-TBOH increased the number of revertants in Salmonella strain TAl 00 reproducibly and m a dose-dependent manner. The mutagenic potency was 0.2 revertants per nmol after preincubation of the bacteria (20 min at 37° C) with doses between 30 and 60 \(\mu\)g per plate (47 and 94 \(\mu\)g/ml preincubation mixture). Above this dose, the number of revertants decreased to control values, accompanied by a reduction in survival. The addition of rat liver S9 inhibited the mutagenicity. DNA binding in vitro: calf thymus DNA was incubated with tritiated ß-TBOH with and without rat liver S9 Highest DNA radioactivities were determined in the absence of the "activation" system. Addition of inactive S9 (without cofactors) reduced the DNA binding by a factor of up to 20. Intermediate results were found with active S9. DNA binding in Salmonella: ß-TBOH was irreversibly bound to DNA isolated from S. typhimurium TA100 after incubation of bacteria with [\(^3\)H]ß-TBOH. Conclusions: Covalent DNA binding appears to be the mechanism of an activation-independent ("direct") mutagenicity of TBOH which is not easily detected because of the bactericidal activity. The genotoxicity risk arising from exposure of humans to trenbolone residues in meat was estimated using the in vivo data and compared to that from the exposure to unavoidable genotoxins aflatoxin B1 and dimethylnitrosamine. It ts concluded that trenbolone residues represent only a low genotoxic risk.
Chemieals that induce cancer in an intact organism are called carcinogens. This term does not differentiale between their various modes of action. In this review, Werner Lutz and Peter Maier make a mechanistic distinction between carcinogens that alter the genetic information and carcinogens that interfere with epigenetic processes. They considercardnogenesis tobe an ongoing, part1y unavoidable process which is based on a succession of mutations, most likely in stem cells, leading to autonomaus cellular growth regulation. Chemical carcinogens either induce such changes through mutations (genotoxic carcinogens) or they aceeierate the accumulation of critica1 spontaneaus mut11tions (epigenetic carcinogens). Examples are given for both classes of carcinogens, and for the processes that act at genoto:tic/nuclear 11nd epigenetic/mitotic Ievels.
DNA Methylation in Rat Li ver by Daminozide, 1, 1-Dimethylhydrazine, and Dimethylnitrosamine. SAGELSDORFF, P., LUTZ, W. K., AND ScHLAITER C. (1988). Fundam. Appl. Toxico/. 11, 723-730. [methyP4C]Daminozide (succinic acid 2',2'-dimethylhydrazide; 37 mgjkg), l,l( 14C]dimethylhydrazine (UDMH; 19 mgtkg), and (14C]dimethylnitrosamine (DMNA; 0.1 mg/ kg) were administered by oral gavage to male Sprague-Dawley rats. After 24 hr, the animals were killed and DNA was purified from the livers to constant specific radioactivity. After enzymatic degradation of the DNA to the 3'-deoxynucleotides the Ievel of DNA methylation was determined by HPLC analysis. Radiolabeled 7-methylguanine (7mG) was identified by cochromatography with unlabeled 7mG added as standard after acidic depurination of DNA and HPLC analysis ofpurines and apurinic acid. All three compounds were found to methylate DNA. The relative potencies were 1:47:4900 for daminozide:UDMH:DMNA. With [methyPH]UDMH, the formation of7mG was investigated as a function of dose administered, at 20, 2, and 0.2 mgj kg. The methylation ofDNA was strictly proportional to the dose. The data were used to compare the Ievel of DNA alkylation derived from residues of daminozide and UDMH in treated apple with the genotoxicity of the intake of N-nitroso compounds in Germany and Japan. It is estimated that these residues could Iead to a DNA methylation in the Ii ver of about 6% of an average exposure to DMNA
This study should contribute to the important field of pharmacogenetics by: firstly, establishing an easy and safe phenotyping method that combines the activity determination of all three previously mentioned CYPs (CYP2D6, CYP2C9, and CYP2C19) into one phenotyping cocktail and secondly, improving the knowledge about the predictive power of the genotype for the measured phenotype. It was indeed possible to develop a save, easy-to-use, fast and simultaneous phenotyping procedure for the important genetic polymorphic enzymes CYP2D6 and CYP2C9. To accomplish that, interaction studies with the chosen probe drugs dextromethorphan (DEX, CYP2D6), flurbiprofen (FLB, CYP2C9) and omeprazole (OME, CYP2C19) were conducted. It could be proven that DEX and FLB can be administered in combination, whereas OME alters the phenotyping results of CYP2C9. This is a new finding as in 2004 a phenotyping cocktail was published that used FLB and OME in combination. However, to our knowledge, no interaction tests were carried in that study. The new phenotyping procedure is not only verified by prior probe drug interaction studies, it also has other advantages over phenotyping cocktails found in literature. Firstly, save probe drugs are used in very small doses. This is possible due to the new sensitive LC-MS/MS methods that were evaluated. Secondly, the new phenotyping procedure is very fast and on-invasive. Urine has to be collected only for 2 h and the results also suggest that the time consuming glucuronide cleavage of the CYP2D6 dependent metabolite dextrorphan, usually carried out before CYP2D6 phenotyping, may be unnecessary. Most importantly, however, new insights into the phenotype prediction from genotype for CYP2C9 and CYP2D6 could be gained within this study. Nearly 300 phenotyped Caucasian subjects were also genotyped for the most important known variant alleles for CYP2D6, CYP2C9 and CYP2C19 using several established and newly developed genoptyping methods. Therefore, a direct correlation between phenotype and genotype could be conducted for CYP2D6 and CYP2C9. Employing linear modeling, it was possible to assign activity coefficients to each of the detected CYP2D6 and CYP2C9 alleles, thereby estimating their contribution to the resulting enzyme activity. This might facilitate the prediction of the CYP2D6 and CYP2C9 metabolic status of a subject knowing only its respective genotypes. Especially the new CYP2D6 genotype phenotype correlation model might allow for more precise phenotype prediction for the included variant alleles than was possible until now. Taken together, this study substantially contributes to the important research field of pharmacogenetics by (i) developing a save and easy-to-use phenotyping combination for CYP2D6 and CYP2C9, and (ii) by establishing activity coefficients for each of the detected CYP2D6 and CYP2C9 alleles, thereby allowing for a more precise prediction of the phenotype from genotype.
Various substituted aniline derivatives were tested for genotoxicity in several short-term tests in order to examine the hypothesis that a Substitution at both ortho positions (2,6-disubstitution) could prevent genotoxicity due to steric hindrance of an enzymatic activation to electrophilic intermediates. In the Salmonellajmicrosome assay, 2,6-dialkylsubstituted anilines and 2,4,6-trimethylaniline (2,4,6-TMA) were weakly mutagenic in strain TA100 when 20% S9 mixwas used, although effects were small compared to those of 2,4-dimethylaniline and 2,4,5-trimethylaniline (2,4,5-TMA). In Drosophila me/anogaster, however, 2,4,6-TMA and 2,4,6-trichloroaniline (TCA) were mutagenic in the wing spottestat 2-3 times lower doses than 2,4,5-TMA. In the 6-thioguanine resistance test in cultured fibroblasts, 2,4,6-TMA was again mutagenic at lower doses than 2,4,5-TMA. Two methylene-bis-aniline derivatives were also tested with the above methods: 4,4'-methylene-bis-(2-chloroaniline) (MOCA) was moderately genotoxic in al1 3 test systems whereas 4,4'-methylene-bis-(2-ethyl-6-methylaniline) (MMEA) showed no genotoxicity at all. DNA binding sturlies in rats, however, revealed that both MOCA and MMEA produced DNA adducts in the liver at Ievels typically found for moderately strong genotoxic carcinogens. These results indicate that the predictive value of the in vitro test systems and particularly the Salmonellajmicrosome assay is inadequate to detect genotoxicity in aromatic amines. Genotoxicity seems to be a general property of aniline derivatives and does not seem to be greatly influenced by substitution at both ortho positions.
Considering the very large industrial usage of benzene, studies in risk assessment aimed at the evaluation of carcinogenic risk at low Ievels of exposure are important. Animal data can offer indications about what could happen in humans and provide more diverse information than epidemiological data with respect to doseresponse consideration. We have considered experiments investigating metabolism, short·term genotoxicity tests, DNA adduct formation, and carcinogenicity long-term tests. According to the different experiments, a Saturation of benzene metabolism and benzene effects in terms of genotoxicity seems evident above 30 to 100 ppm. Below 30 to 60 ppm the initiating effect ofbenzene seems tobe linear fora large intervaJ ofdosages, at least judging from DNA adduct formation. Potentiallack of a promoting effect of benzene (below 10 ppm) could generate a sublinear response at nontox.ic levels of ex.posure. This possibility was suggested by epidemiological data in humans and is not confirmed or excluded by our observations with animals.
Fernale BALB/c mice were administered intragastrically with equimolar amounts of either [2-\(^{14}\)C]2-amino-3,8-dimethyi[ 4,5-J]qulnoxaline (MeiQx) or 2-acetylamino[9-\(^{14}\)C]fluorene (2AAF). DNA was isolated from tissues of mice killed either 6 or 24 h after administration. Analysis of liver DNA nucleotide digests by HPLC analysis revealed that all of the radioactivity was attributable to adduct formation. Tbe specific activities of DNA samples were converted to covalent bindlog indices (CBI, J.LIDOI adduct per mol DNA nucleotides/mmol chemical app6ed per kg animal body weight). CBI values of 25 and 9 were detennined for 2AAF and MeiQx in tbe llvers of mice killed 6 h after dosing. The values were in general agreement with the moderate carcinogenic potency of these compounds. The specific activities of DNA preparations obtained from the lddneys, spleens, stomachs, small intestines and large intestlnes of mice treated witb MeiQx and killed 6 h after doslng were S- to 35-times less tban those obtained witb the llver. DNA isolated from tbe lungs (a target organ for MeiQx tumorigenicity) of MeiQx-treated mice was not radiolabeUed at tbe limit of detection (CBI <0.3). With tbe exception of tbe gastrolntestinal tract, the specific activities of DNA samples isolated from mice killed 6 h after administration were higher than those from mice killed after 24 h.
Ethyl carbamate is found in fermented foods: bread contains 3-15 ng/g, stone-fruit brandies 200-20,000 ngfg, and about one-third of table-wine samples analysed contained more than 10 ng/g. In animals, ethyl carbamate is degraded to C02, H20 and NH3, with intermediate formation ofethanol. This degradation has been shown tobe inhibited (postponed) in the mouse by ethanol concentrations in the blood of about 0.15% and higher. A quantitatively minor pathway involves a two-step oxidation of the ethyl group to vinyl carbamate and epoxyethyl carbamate, the postulated electrophilic moiety that reacts with DNA. This reaction is probably the mode of the mutagenic action observed in many cellular and animal systems. The fact that only vinyl carbamate, but not ethyl carbamate, is mutagenic in a standard Ames test is probably because there is insufficient production of the intermediate oxidation product in the standard test. Consistent with this metabolism is the carcinogenic activity of ethyl carbamate in various animal species and in different organs; this activity can be seen even after a single high dose in early life. Quantitative analysis of the total tumour incidences after chronic exposure of rats and mice to 0.1-12.5 mg ethyl carbamate/kg body weightjday in the drinking-water showed a dose-related increase. The main target organs were the mammary gland (female rats and mice having similar susceptibilities) and the Jung (mice only). On the basis of sex- and organ-specific tumour data and with a linear extrapolation to a negligible increase of the lifetime tumour incidence by 0.0001% ( one additional tumour in one milüon individuals exposed for life), a "virtually safe dose .. of 20 to 80 ng/kg body weight/day was estimated. The daily burden reached under normal dietary habits without alcoholic beverages is in the range of about 20 ng/kg body weightfday. Regular table-wine consumption would increase the risk by a factor of up to five. Regular drinking of 20 to 40 ml stone-fruit brandy per day could raise the calculated lifetime tumour risk to near 0.01%.
A list ofendogenaus DNA·damaging agents and processes is given. Endogenaus e/ectrophiles are found with the cosubstrates of physiological transfer reactions (S-adenosylrnethionine for methylation, A TP for phosphorylation, NAD\(^+\) for ADP-ribosylation, acetyl CoA for acetylation). Aldehyde groups (glyceraldehyde- 3-phosphate, formaldehyde, open forms of reducing sugars, degradation products of peroxidation) or alkylating degradation products derived from endogenaus nitrose compounds represent additional possibilities. Radical-forming reactions include leakage of the superoxide anion radical from terminal cytochromes and redox cycles, hydroxyl radical formation by the Fenton reaction from endogenaus hydrogen peroxide, and the formation of lipid peroxides. Genetic instability by spontaneaus deaminations and depurinations as well as replicative instability by tautomer errors andin the presence of mutagenic metal ions represent a third important dass of endogenaus genotoxic processes. The postulated endogenaus genotoxicity could form the mechanistic basis for what is called 'spontaneous' tumor incidence and explain the possibility of an increased tumor incidence after treatment of animals with non-genotoxic compounds exhibiting tumor-promoting activity only. Individual differences are expected to be seen also with endogenaus DNA damage. The presence of endogenaus DNA darnage implies that exogenaus DNAcarcinogen adducts give rise to an incremental darnage which is expected to be proportional to the carcinogen dose at lowest Ievels. An increased tumor risk due to exposure to exogenaus genotoxic carcinogens could therefore be assessed in terms of the background DNA damage~ for instance in multiples of the mean Ievel or of the interindividual variability in a population.
In a colorimetric assay using 4-( p-nitrobenzyl)pyridine (NBP) as a nucleophilic scavenger of alkylating agents, the nitrosation and alkylation reactions were investigated for a number of amino acids and derivatives. The alkylating activity increased with the square of the nitrite concentration. The nitrosation rate constants for aspartic acid, aspartame, and glycine ethylester ( = precursors C) were 0.08, 1.4 and ~ 0.2, respectively, expressed in terms of the pH-dependent \(k_2\) rate constant of the equation dNOCjdt = \(k_2\) • (C]· [nitrite]\(^2\) • The rates correlated inversely with the basicity of the amino group. The stability of the alkylating activity was astonishingly high, both in acid and at neutral pH. Half-lives of 500, 200, and 30 min were determined for aspartic acid (pH 3.5), aspartame (pH 2.5), and glycine ethylester (pH 2.5). Values of 60, 15, and 2 min; respectively, were found at pH 7. It is concluded that rearrangement of the primary N-nitroso product to the ultimate alkylating agent could be rate-limiting. The potential of nitrosated a-amino acids to bind to DN A in vivo was investigated by oral gavage of radiolabelled glycine ethylester to rats, followed irnmediately by sodium nitrite. DNA was isolated from stomach and liver and analysed for radioactivity and modified nucleotides. No indication of DNA adduct formation was obtained. Based on an estimation of the dose fraction converted from glycine ethylester to the nitroso product under the given experimental conditions, the maximum possible DNA-binding potency of nitroso glycine ethylester is about one order of magnitude below the methylating potency of N-nitrosomethylurea in rat stomach. The apparent discrepancy to the in vitro data could be due to efficient detoxification processes in mammalian cells.
Male rats were treated for 2 months with 1000 ppm nafenopin in the diet or for 4 or 7 days with a choline-devoid low-methionine diet. DNA was isolated from the livers and analyzed for the presence of cis-thymidine glycol-3'-phosphate (cis-dTGp) by 32P-postlabeling and for the Ievel of 8-hydroxy-deoxyguanosine (8-0H-dG) by electrochemical detection (ECD). In no DNA sample was the Ievel of cis-dTGp above the Iimit of detection of 1 modified thymidine per 106 nucleotides. With 8-0H-dG, a background Ievel of this modification of 20 8-0H-dG per 106 nucleosides was found in liver DNA of control rats, which was not affected by either treatment. It is postulated for thymidine glycol that a potential increase was below the Iimit of detection or was rapidly repaired in vivo and that the steady-state Ievel of endogenous 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine appears not tobe influenced by the treatments chosen.
Dose-response relationship and low dose extrapolation in chemical carcinogenesis [commentary]
(1990)
Data supporting various dose-respome relationships in chemical carcinogenesis are summarized. General principles are derived to explain the relationships between exposure dose, JI>NA adduct Ievel, induction of genetic changes, and tumor incidence. Some mechanistic aspects of epigenetic carcinogens (stimulation of ceU division and maldlfl'erentlation) are analyzed in a similar way. In a bomogeneous pnpulation, non-linearities are frequent. They are due to pbenomena of induction or saturation of enzymatic activities and to the multi-step nature of carcinog~: if a carcinogen acce1erates more than one step, the SUperposition of the dose- response curves for the indJvidual steps can result in an exponential relationship. A fourth power of the dose was the maximum seen in animals (fonnaldehyde). At the lowest dose Ievels, a proportionality between dose and tumor induction is postulated independent of the mechanism of action if the carcinogen aceeierotes the endogenous proass responsible for spootaneous tumor formation. Low-dose thresholds are expected only for situations where the carcinogen acts in a way that has no endogenous counterpart. Epidemiologfcal studies in humans show linear dose- response curves in all but two investigations. The difference from the strongly nonlinear slopes ·seen in animal studies could be due to the heterogeneity of the human population: if the individual sensitivity to a carcinogen is governed by a large number of genetic and Iife-style factors, the non-linea.rities will tend to cancel each other out and the dose- response curve becomes 'quasi-linear'.
Linear dose-response relationship for DNA adducts in rat liver from chronic exposure to aflatoxin B1
(1990)
Male F-344 rats were given eH]aßatoxin B1 (AFB1) in the drinking water at three exposure Ievels (0.02, 0.6, 20 J,Lgll, resulting in average dose Ievels of 2.2, 73, 2110 nglkg per day). After 4, 6 and 8 weeks, DNA was ~ted frorn the livers and analyzed for aßatoxin-DNA adducts. Tbe Ievel of DNA adducts did not increase significantly after 4 weeks, indicating that a steady-state for adduct formation and removal had nearly been reached. At 8 weeks, the adduct Ievels were 0.91, 32 and 850 nucleotide-aßatoxin adducts per to' nucleotides, i.e. clearly proportional to the dose. At the high dose Ievel, a near SO% tumor incidence would be expected in a 2-year bioassay with F -344 rats while the low dose used is within the range of estlmated human dietary exposures to aßatoxin in W estem countries. The proportionality seen between exposure and steady-state DNA adduct Ievel is discussed with respect to a linear extrapolation of the tumor risk to low dose.
The formation of \(O^6\)-methyldeoxyguanosine (\(O^6\)-MedGuo) was determined by an immuno-slot-blot assay in DNA of various tissues of F344 rats exposed to N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (MNU) in the drinking waterat 400 ppm for 2 weeks. Although the pyloric region of the glandular stomach is a target organ under these experimental conditions, the extent of DNA methylation was highest in the forestomach (185 \(\mu\)mol \(O^6\)-MedGuojmol guanine). Fundus (91 J.!moljmol guanine) and pylorus (105 J.!moljmol guanine) of the glandular stomach, oesophagus (124 \(\mu\)mol/mol guanine) and duodenum (109 )lmoljmol guanine) showed lower Ievels of \(O^6\) - MedGuo but differed little between each other. Thus, no correlation was observed between target organ specificity and the extent of DNA methylation. This is in contrast to the gastric carcinogen, N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG), which preferentially alkylates DNA of the pylorus, the main site of induction of gastric carcinomas by this chemical. In contrast to MNU, the nonenzymic decomposition of MNNG is accelerated by thiol compounds (reduced glutathione, L-cysteine), which are present at much higher concentrations in the glandular stomach than in the forestomach and oesophagus. During chronic exposure to MNNG (80 ppm), mucosal cells immunoreactive to 0 6-MedGuo are limited to the luminal surface [Kobori et al. (1988) Carcinogenesis 9:2271-2274]. Although MNU (400 ppm) produced similar Ievels of \(O^6\)-MedGuo in the pylorus, no cells containing methylpurines were detectable by immunohistochemistry, suggesting a more uniform methylation of mucosal cells by MNU than by MNNG. After a single oral dose of MNU (90 mg/kg) cells containing methylpurines were unequivocally identified using antibodies to \(O^6\)-MedGuo and the imidazole-ring-opened product of 7-methyldeoxyguanosine. In the gastric fundus, their distribution was similar to those methylated by exposure to MNNG, whereas the pyloric region contained immunoreactive cells also in the deeper mucosallayers. After a 2-week MNU treatment, the rate of cell proliferation, as determined by bromodeoxyuridine immunoreactivity, was only slightly enhanced in the oesophagus andin the fundus, but markedly in the forestomach and the pyloric region of the glandular stomach. lt is concluded that the overall extent of DNA methylation, the distribution of alkylated cells within the mucosa and the proliferative response all contribute to the organ-specific carcinogenicity of MNU.
Effect of inhalation exposure regimen on DNA binding potency of 1,2-dichloroethane in the rat
(1991)
1 ,2-Dichloroethane (DCE) was reported to be carcinogenic in rats in a long-tenn bioassay using gavage in com oil (24 and 48 mg/kg/day), but not by inhalation (up to 150-250 ppm, 7 h/day, 5 days/week). The daily dose metabolized was similar in the two experiments. In order to address this discrepancy, the genotoxicity of DCE was investigated in vivo under different exposure conditions. Fernale F-344 rats (183-188 g) were exposed to [1,2-14C]DCE in a closed inhalation chamber to either a low, constant concentration (0.3 mg/l = 80 ppm for 4 h) or to a peak concentration (up to 18 mg/1 = 4400 ppm) for a few minutes. After 12 h in the chamber, the dose metabolized under the two conditions was 34 mg/kg and 140 mg/k:g. DNA was isolated from liver and lung and was purified to constant specific radioactivity. DNA was enzymaticaBy hydrolyzed to the 3' -nucleotides which were separated by reverse phase HPLC. Most radioactivity eluted without detectable or with little optical density' indicating that the major part of the DNA radioactivity was due to covalent binding of the test compound. The Ievel of DNA adducts was expressed in the dose-nonnalized units ofthe Covalent Binding Index, CBI = f.Lmol adduct per mol DNA nucleotide/ mmol DCE per kg body wt. In liver DNA, the different exposure regimens resulted in markedly different CBI values of 1.8 and 69, for "constant-low" and ''peak" DCE exposure Ievels. In the Jung, the respective values were 0.9 and 31. It is concluded that the DNA darnage by DCE depends upon the concentration-time profile and that the carcinogenic potency determined in the gavage study should not be used for low-Ievel inhalation exposure.
Styrene-7,8-oxide (SO), the main intennediate metabolite of styrene, induces hyperkeratosis and tumors in the forestomach of rats and mice upon chronic administration by gavage. The aim of this study was to investigate wbether DNA binding could be responsible for the carcinogenic effect observed. [7-\(^3\)H]SO was administered by oral gavage in com oll to male CD rats at two dose levels (1.65 or 240 mg/kg). After 4 or 24 h, forestomach, glandular stomach and Uver were exclsed, DNA was isolated and its radioactivity detennined. At the 4 h time polnt, the DNA radioactivity was below the Iimit of detection in the torestornach and the liver. Expressed in the units of the covalent bindlng Index, CBI = (pmol adduct/mol DNA nucleotide)/(mmol cbemical administeredlkg body wt), the DNA-binding potency was below 2.6 and 2.0 respectively. In the glandular stomach at 4 b, and in most 24 b samples, DNA was slightly radiolabeled. Enzymatic degradation of the DNA and separation by HPLC ofthe normal nucleotides sbowed that the DNA rad.ioactivity represented biosynthetic incorporation of radlolabel into newly synthesized DNA. The Iimit of detection of DNA adducts in the glandular stomach was 1.0. In a second experlment, [7-\(^3\)H]SO was administered by i.p. injection to male 86C3Fl rnice. Liver DNA was analyzed after 2 h. No radloactivity was detectable at a Iimit of detection of CBI < 0.6. In agreement with the relatively long half-life of SO in animals, the cbemical reactivity of SO appears to be too low to result in a detectable production of DNA adducts in an in vivo situation. Upon comparison with the DNA-binding of other carcinogens, a purely genotoxic mechanism of tumorigenJc action of SO is unlikely. The observed tumorigenic potency in the forestomach could be the result of strong tumor promotion by high-dose cytotoxicity foUowed by regenerative hyperplasia.
The intake of known dietary carclnogens was compiled and the cancer risk was estlmated on the basis of carcinogenic potencies in animals as derived from the Carcinogenic Potency Database by Gold and co-workers. The total cancer risk was compared with the number of cancer cases attributed by epidemiologists to dietary factors (one-third of all cancer cases, i.e. -80 000 per one million Jives). Except for alcohol, the known dietary carcinogens could not account for more than a few bundred cancer cases. Tbis was seen both with tbe DNA-reactive carcinogens (beterocyclic aromatic amines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, N-nitroso compounds, estragole, aflatoxin B., ethyl carbamate, to name the most important factors) as wen as with those carclnogens wbich have not been shown to react with DNA (e.g. caffelc acid and the carcinogeruc metals arsenic and cadmium). Residues and contaminants turned out to be negligible. Among the various pmsibilities to explain the discrepancy we investigated the roJe of ovemutritlon. Dietary restriction in animals is weil known for its strong reducing effect on spontaneous tumor formation. These data can be used to derive a carcinogenic potency for excess macronutrients: tbe tumor incidence seen with the restrlcted animals is taken as a control value and the increased tumor incidence in the animals fed ad libitum is attributed to the additional feed iotake. For excess standard diet in rats, a carcinogenic potency TD50 of 16 glkg/day was deduced from a recent study. Ovemutrition in Switzerland, estimated to be 5.5 kcallkg/day, was converted to excess food (1.9 g/kg/day) and tbe cancer incidence was calculated. The result, 60 000 cancer cases per one million Jives, is provocatively close to the number of cases not explained by the known dietary chemical carcinogens. Mechanistic studies will be required to test our hypothesis and investigate the role of different types of macronutrients in ovemutrition.
Protein phosphatases can be classified into at least three major families based on amino acid sequences at their active sites. A newly emerging phosphatase family contains the active site sequence DXDX(T/V), and belongs to the haloacid dehalogenase (HAD) superfamily of hydrolases, a ubiquitous and evolutionarily conserved enzyme family. Although the existence of 58 human HAD enzymes has been predicted by database analysis, our understanding of their biological functions remains rudimentary.By database mining amd phylogenetic analysis of human HAD phosphatases, we have found a marked increase in cell area of spreading cells, as well as accelerated cell spreading onfibronectin. Taken together, we have identified and characterized AUM as a novel member of the emerging family of aspartate-dependent protein tyrosine phosphatases. Our findings implicate AUM as an important regulator of Src-dependent cytoskeletal dynamics during cell adhesion and migration. a previously unidentified enzyme with homology to Chronophin, a cytoskeletal regulatory HAD phosphatase. We have cloned and characterized this novel enzyme and named it AUM,for actin remodeling, ubiquitously expressed, magnesium-dependent HAD phosphatase. By Northern blot, real-time PCR and Western blot analysis, we show that AUM is broadly expressed in all major human and mouse tissues with highest levels found in testis. Using immunohistochemistry, we can show that AUM is specifically expressed in maturing germ cells and that its expression peaks during spermiogenesis. To characterize the substrate preference of AUM, we have conducted an in vitro phosphatase substrate screen with 720 phosphopeptides derived from human phosphorylation sites. AUM exclusively dephosphorylates phosphotyrosine (pTyr)-containing peptides. Furthermore, only 17 pTyr peptides (~2% of all pTyr peptides investigated) acted as AUM substrates, indicating a high degree of substrate specificity. Putative AUM substrates include proteins involved in cytoskeletal dynamics and tyrosine kinase signaling.In accordance with the phosphopeptide screen, phosphatase overlay assays employing whole-cell extracts of pervanadate-treated HeLa cells show that AUM dephosphorylates only a limited number of tyrosyl-phosphorylated proteins.The role of AUM for cellular signaling was investigated in response to epidermal growth factor (EGF) stimulation in a spermatogonial cell line (GC-1 spg). The overexpression of AUM reduces, whereas the RNAi-mediated depletion of endogenous AUM increases EGF inducedtyrosine phosphorylation, including changes in the phosphorylation of the EGF receptor itself. Interestingly, in vitro kinase/phosphatase assays with purified Src and AUM indicate that AUM can activate Src, which in turn phosphorylates and inactivates AUM. Although it is at present unclear how Src and AUM regulate each other, our initial findings suggests that AUM enhances Src kinase activity independently of its phosphatase activity, whereas Src diminishes AUM phosphatase activity in a kinase dependent manner. On a cellular level, AUM-depleted cells are characterized by altered actin cytoskeletal dynamics and adhesion, as indicated by stabilized actin filaments, enlarged focal adhesions,a marked increase in cell area of spreading cells, as well as accelerated cell spreading on fibronectin. Taken together, we have identified and characterized AUM as a novel member of the emerging family of aspartate-dependent protein tyrosine phosphatases. Our findings implicate AUM as an important regulator of Src-dependent cytoskeletal dynamics during cell adhesion and migration.
2-Acetylaminofluorene (2-AAF) was administered at Ievels of 0, 300 and 600 ppm in the diet for 28 days to female transgenic micc bearing the lacl genein a Iambda vector (Big Blue® mice). The Iambda vector was excised from liver DNA and packaged in vitro into bacteriophage particles which were allowed to infect E. coli bacteria, forming plaques on agar plates. Approximately 10\(^5\) plaques wcre screened per animal for the appearance of a bluc colour, indicative of mutations in the lac/ gcnc which had resulted in an inactive gene product. Background mutation rate was 2.7 x 10\(^{-5}\) (pooled results of two animals, 8 mutant plaques/289 530 plaques). At 300 ppm in the diet, the rate of 3.5 X 10\(^{-5}\)(8/236 300) was not significantly increased over background. At 600 ppm in the dict, the rate increased approximately 3 fold to 7.7 x 10\(^{-5}\) (17 /221240). In comparison to the usual single or 5-day carcinogen exposure regimes, the 4-week exposure protocol allowed the use of much lower dose Ievels 00-1000 fold lower). Overt toxicity could thus be avoided. The daily doses used were somewhat higher than those required in 2-year carcinogenicity studies with 2·AAF.
'lbe mouse skin tumor model was used to investigate whether the Ievel of DNA 8dducts and/or the rate of cell division in the epidermis are indicators of the risk of cancer formation for an individual in an outbred animal popul8tion. A high risk was considered to be reftected by 8 short latency period for the 8ppearance of 8 papilloma. Fernale NMRI mice were treated twice weekly with 2.5 nmol 7 ,12-dimethylbenz[a]antbracene (DMBA) and 3 nmoi12-0-tetradecanoylphorbol-13- 8cetate (TPA) and the appearance of papillomas was registered. The first papilloma 8ppeared after 7.5 weeks. After 17 weeks, when 12 of 14 mice bad 8t least one papilloma, an osmotic minipump deliverlog 5-bromo-2'deoxyuridine (BrdU) was implanted into eacb mouse for 24 h. The mice were killed after 24 h ~d the epidermis was analyzed for D:MBA-nucleotide 8dducts by 32p.postlabeling, for the cell number per unit skin length, and for the labeling index for DNA synthesls. Unexpectedly, D:MBA-nucleotide 8dduct Ievels were highest in those anima1s wbich showed the Iongest latency periods. Adduct Ievels were negatively correlated with the 18beling index, indicating that dilution of adducts by cell division was a predominant factor in determining average adduct concentrations. Individual tumor-latency time was not corTelated with either cell ntunber or labeling index. This could be due to the fact that the measurements only provided 8veraged data and gave no infonnation on the specific situation in clones of premalignant cells. Under the conditions of tbis assay, therefore, neither DNA adduct Ievels nor information on the average kinetics of cell division bad a predidive value for the individual amcer risk withln a group of outbred animals receiving the same treatment
The question addressed was whether Stimulation of cell proliferation could be responsible for tumor induction in the torestornach by styrene 7,8-oxide (SO). Male F344 rats were treated for 4 weeks with 0, 137,275, and 550 mglkg SO by p.o. gavage 3 times/week. Positive controls received 0, 0.5, I, and 2% butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) in the diet for 4 weeks. Twenty-four h before termination of the experlment, the rats were implanted s.c. with an osmotic minipump deliverlog S-bromo-2'-deoxyuri· dine (BrdU). Cell proliferation in the forestomach was assessed by immunohistochemistry for BrdU incorporated into DNA. Cell number/mm section length and fraction of replicating cells (labeling Index) were determined in 3 domains of the forestomach, the saccus caecus, the midregion, and the prefundic region. With the exception of the prefundic reglon of the low-dose SO group, a significant increase of the labeling index was found in all regions both with SO and BHA. Rats treated with BHA showed, in addition, a dose-dependent increase in number and size of hyperplastic lesions. This was most pronounced in the prefundic region where carcinomas were reported to be localized. In this region, the number of dividing cells/mm section length was increased up to 17-fold. With SO, only marginal morphological changes were occasionally observed, despite the fact that the respective long-term treatment bad been reported to result in a higher carcinoma incidence than treatment with BHA. It ls concluded that the rate of replicating cells alone, numerically expressed by the labeling Index, is an lnsufficient tool for interpretlog the role of cell division in carcinogenesis. It is postulated that SO and BHA induce forestomach tumors via different mechanisms. While hyperplasia in the prefundic region most likely dominates the carcinogenicity of BHA, a mechanism combining marginal genotoxicity with strong promotion by increased cell proliferation appears to be involved in the tumorigenic action of SO.
The detection Iimit of the lacl transgenic mouse mutagenicity assay lies, in practice, at approximately a 50-100% increase in mutant frequency in treated animals over controls. The sensitivity of this assay in detecting genotoxins can be markedly improved by subchronic rather than acute application of the test compound. The lac/ transgenic mouse mutagenicity assay was compared quantitatively to rodent carcinogenicity tests and to presently used in vivo mutagenicity assays. With the genotoxic carcinogens tested thus far, a rough correlation between mutagenic potency and carcinogenic potency was observed: on average, to obtain a doubling in lacl mutant frequency the mice bad to be treated with a total dose equal to 50 times the TD50 daily dose Ievel. This total dose could be administered eilher at a high dose rate within a few days or, preferably, at a low dose rate over several weeks. This analysis also indicated that a lacl experiment using a 250-day exposure period would give a detection Iimit approximately equal to that of a long-term carcinogenicity study. In comparison to the micronucleus test or the chromosome aberration assay, acute sturlies with the presently available lacl system offered no increase in sensitivity. However, subchronic lacl sturlies (3-4-month exposure) resulted in an increase in sensitivity over the established tests by 1-2 orders of magnitude (shown with 2-acetylaminofluorene, N-nitrosomethylamine, N-nitrosomethylurea and urethane). 1t is concluded that a positive result in the lacl test can be highly predictive of carcinogenicity butthat a negative result does not provide a large margin of safety.
Desensitization of N-fonnyl peptide chemoattractant receptors (FPR) in human neutrophils is thought to be achieved by lateral segregation of receptors and G proteins within the plane of the plasma membrane resulting in an interruption of the signalling cascade. Direct coupling of FPR to membrane skeletal actin appears to be the basis of this process~ however, the molecular mechanism is unknown. In this study we investigated the effect of energy depletion on formation of FPR-membrane skeleton complexes. In addition the effect of the protein kinase C inhibitor stauroporine and the phosphatase inhibitor okadaic acid on coupling of FPR to the membrane skeletonwas studied. Human neutrophils were desensitized using the photoreactive agonist N-formy1-met-leu-phe-1ys-N'[\(^{125}\)I]2(p-azidosalicylamido)ethyl-1,3'-dithiopropionate (fMLFK-[\(^{125}\)I]ASD) after ATP depletion with NaF or after incubation with the respective inhibitors. The interaction of FPR with the membrane skeleton was studied by Sedimentation of the membrane skeleton-associated receptors in sucrose density gradients. Energy depletion of the cells markedly inhibited the formation of FPR-membrane skeleton complexes. This does not appear tobe related to inhibition of protein phosphorylation due to ATP depletion because inhibition of protein kinases and phosphatases bad no significant effect on coupling of FPR to the membrane skeleton. We conclude, therefore, that coupling of FPR to the membrane skeleton is an energy,dependent process which does not appear to require modification of the receptor protein by phosphorylation.
Desensitization of N-formyl peptide chemoattractant receptors (FPR) in human neutrophils results in association of these receptors to the membrane skeleton. This is thought to be the critical event in the lateral segregation of receptors and guanyl nucleotide-binding proteins (G proteins) within the plane of the plasma membrane resulting in an interruption of the signaling cascade. In this study we probed the interaction of FPR with G protein in human neutrophils that were desensitized to various degrees. Human neutrophils were desensitized using the photoreactive agonist N-formyl-met-leu-phelys- N\(^\epsilon\)-[\(^{125}\)I]2(p-azidosalicylamido )ethyl-1 ,3 '-dithiopropionate (/MLFK-[\(^{125}\)I]ASD). The interaction if FPR with G protein was studied via a reconstitution assay and subsequent analysis of FPR-G protein complexes in sucrose density gradients. FPR-G protein complexes were reconstituted with solubilized FPR from partially and fully desensitized neutrophils with increasing concentrations of Gi purified from bovine brain. The respective EC\(_{50}\) values for reconstitution were similar to that determined for FPR from unstimulated neutrophils (Bommakanti RK et al., J Bio[ Chem 267: 757~7581, 1992). We conclude, therefore, that the affinity of the interaction of FPR with G protein is not affected by desensitization, consistent with the model of lateral segregation of FPR and G protein as a mechanism of desensitization.
Signal transduction via receptors for N-formylmethionyl peptide chemoattractants (FPR) on human neutrophils is a highly regulated process which involves participation of cytoskeletal elements. Evidence exists suggesting that the cytoskeleton and/or the membrane skeleton controls the distributJon of FPR in the plane of the plasma membrane, thus controlling the accessibility of FPR to different proteins in functionally distinct domains. In desensitized cells, FPR are restricted todomains which are depleted of G proteins but enriched in cytoskeletal proteins such as actin and fodrin. Thus, the G protein signal transduction partners of FPR become inaccessible to the agonist-occupied receptor, preventing cell activation. The mechanism of interaction of FPR with the membrane skeleton is poorly understood but evidence is accumulating that suggests a direct binding of FPR (and other receptors) to cytoskeletal proteins such as actin.
The cytoskeleton and/or membrane skeleton has been implicated in the regulation of N-formyl peptide receptors. The coupling of these chemotactic receptors to the membrane skeleton was investigated in plasma membranes from unstimulated and desensitized human neutrophils using the photoreactive agonist N-formyl-met-leu-phelys-N\(^6\)-[\(^{125}\)I]2(p-azidosalicylamido)ethyl-1,3'-dithiopropionate (fMLFK-[\(^{125}\)I]ASD). When membranes of unstimulated cells were solubilized in Triton-X 100, a detergent that does not disrupt actin filaments, only 50% of the photoaffinity-labeled receptors were solubilized sedimenting in sucrose density gradients at a rate consistent with previous reports. The remainder were found in the pellet fraction along with the membrane skeletal actin. Solubilization of the membranes in the presence of p-chloromercuriphenylsulfonic acid, elevated concentrations of KCI, or deoxyribonuclease I released receptors in parallel with actin. When membranes from neutrophils, desensitized by incubation with fMLFK-e 251]ASD at 15°C, were solubilized, nearly all receptors were recovered in the pellet fraction. lncubation of cells with the Iigand at 4°C inhibited desensitization partially and prevented the conversion of a significant fraction of receptors to the form associated with the membrane skeletal pellet. ln these separations the photoaffinity-labeled receptors not sedimenting to the pellet cosedimented with actin. Approximately 25% of these receptors could be immunosedimented with antiactin antibodies suggesting that N-formyl peptide receptors may interact directly with actin. These results are consistent with a regulatory role for the interaction of chemotactic N-formyl peptide receptors with actin of the membrane skeleton.
When human neutrophils become desensitized to formyl peptide chemoattractants, the receptors (FPR) for these peptides are converted to a high affinity, GTP-insensitive form that is associated with the Triton X-1 00- insoluble membrane skeleton from surface membrane domains. These domains are actin and fodrin-rich, but G protein-depfeted suggesting that FPR shuttling between G protein-enriched and depleted domains may control signal transduction. Todetermine the molecular basis for FPR interaction with the membrane skeleton, neutrophil subcellular fractions were screened for molecules that could bind photoaffinity-radioiodinated FPR solubilized in Triton X-1 00. These receptors showed a propensity to bind to a 41- to43-kDa proteinband on nitrocelluloseoverlays of SOS-PAGE-separated cytosol and plasma membrane fractions of neutrophils. This binding, as weil as FPR binding to purified neutrophil actin, was inhibited 50% by 0.6 \(\mu\)M free neutrophil cytosolic actin. Addition of greater than 1 \(\mu\)M G-actin to crude or lectin-purified Triton X-1 00 extracts of FPR from neutrophil membranes increased the sedimentationrate of a significant fraction of FPR two to three fold as measured by velocity sedimentation in Triton X-1 00-containing linear sucrose density gradients. Addition of anti-actin antibodies to FPR extracts caused a concentration-dependent immunoprecipitation of at least 65% of the FPR. More than 40% of the immunoprecipitated FPR was specifically retained on protein A affinity matrices. Membrane actin was stabilized to alkaline washing when membranes were photoaffinity labeled. Conversely, when purified neutrophil cytosolic actinwas added to membranes or their digitonin extracts, after prior depletion of actin by an alkaline membrane wash, photoaffinity labeling of FPR was increased two- to fourfold with an EC\(_{50}\) of approximately 0.1 \(\mu\)M actin. We conclude that FPR from human neutrophils may interact with actin in membranes to form Triton X-1 00-stable physical complexes. These complexes can accept additional G-actin monomers to form higher order molecular complexes. Formation of FPR-actin complexes in the neutrophil may play a role in the regulation of chemoattractantinduced activation or actin polymerization.
A\(_1\) adenosine receptors in coated vesicles have been characterized by radioligand binding and photoaflinity labelling. Saturation experiments with the antagonist 8-cyclopentyl-1 ,3-[\(^3\)H]dipropyl-xanthine ([\(^3\)H]DPCPX) gave a Kdvalue of 0.7 nM and a Bmax value of 82± 13 fmol/mg protein. For the highly A\(_1\)-selective agonist 2-chloro-N\(^6\)-[\(^3\)H]cyclopentyladenosine ([\(^3\)H]CCPA) a Kd value of 1.7 nM and a Bmax value of 72 ± 29 fmol/mg protein was estimated. Competition of agonists for [\(^3\)H]DPCPX binding gave a pharmacological profile with R-N\(^6\)-phenylisopropyladenosine (R-PIA) > CCPA > S-PIA > 5'-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine (NECA), which is identical to brain membranes. The competition curves were best fitted according to a two-site model, suggesting the existence of two affinity states. GTP shifted the competition curve for CCP A to the right and only one affinity state similar to the low affinity state in the absence of GTP was detected. The photoreactive agonist 2-azido-N\(^6\)- \(^{125}\)I-p-hydroxyphenylisopropyladenosine ([\(^{125}\)I]AHPIA) specifically labelled a single protein with an apparent molecular weight of 35,000 in coated vesicles, which is identical to A\(_1\) receptors labelled in brain membranes. Therefore, coated vesicles contain A\(_1\) adenosine receptors with similar binding characteristics as membrane-bound receptors, including GTP-sensitive high-affinity agonist binding. Photoaffinity labelling data suggest that A\(_1\) receptors in these vesicles are not a processed receptor fonn. These results confirm that A\(_1\) receptors in coated vesicles are coupled to a G-protein, and it appears that the A\(_1\) receptor systems in coated vesicles andin plasma membranes are identical.
Reduction of postischemic leukocyte-endothelium interaction by adenosine via A\(_2\) receptor
(1992)
The adhesion of leukocytes to the endothelium of postcapillary venules hallmarks a key event in ischemia-reperfusion injury. Adenosine has been shown to protect from postischemic reperfusion injury, presumably through inhibition of postischemic leukocyte-endothelial interaction. This study was performed to investigate in vivo by which receptors the effect of adenosine on postischemic leukocyte-endothelium interaction is mediated. The hamster dorsal skinfold model and fluorescence microscopy were used for intravital investigation of red cell velocity, vessel diameter, and leukocyte-endothelium interaction in postcapillary venules of a thin striated skin muscle. leukocytes were stained in vivo with acridine orange (0.5 mg kg\(^{-1}\) min\(^{-1}\) i.v. ). Parameters were assessed prior to induction of 4 h ischemia to the muscle tissue and 0.5 h, 2 h, and 24 h after reperfusion. ·Adenosine, the adenosine A1-selective agonist 2-chloro-N\(^6\) -cyclopentyladenosine (CCPA), the Arselective agonist CGS 21,680, the non-selective adenosine receptor antagonist xanthine amine congener {XAC), and the adenosine uptake blocker S-(p-nitrobenzyl)-6-thioinosine (NBTI) were infused viajugular vein starting 15 min priortorelease of ischemia until 0.5 h after reperfusion. Adenosine and CGS 21,680 significantly reduced postischemic leukocyte-endothelium interaction 0.5 h after reperfusion (p< 0.01), while no inhibitory effect was observed with CCPA. Coadministration of XAC blocked the inhibitory effects of adenosine. Infusion of NBTI alone effectively decreased postischemic leukocyte-endothelium interaction. These findings indicate that adenosine reduces postischemic leukocyte-endothelium interaction via A\(_2\) receptor and suggest a protective role of endogenous adenosine during ischemia-reperfusion.
In the search for more selective A2-receptor agonists and on the basis that appropriate substitution at C2 is known to impart selectivity for A\(_2\) receptors, 2-alkynyladenosines 2a-d were resynthesized and evaluated in radioligand binding, adenylate cycla.se, and platelet aggregation studies. Binding of [\(^3\)H]NECA to A\(_2\) receptors of rat striatal membranes was inhibited by compounds 2a-d with K\(_i\) values ranging from 2.8 to 16.4 nM. 2-Alkynyladenosines also exhibited high-affmity binding at solubilized A\(_2\) receptors from human platelet membranes. Competition of 2-alkynyladenosines 2a-d for the antagonist radioligand [\(^3\)H]DPCPX and for the agonist [\(^3\)H]CCPA gave K\(_i\) values in the nanomolar range, and the compounds showed moderate A\(_2\) selectivity. In order to improve this selectivity, the correaponding 2-alkynyl derivatives of adenosine-5'-N-ethyluronamide 8a-d were synthesized and tested. A\(_1\) expected, the 5'-N-ethyluronamide derivatives retained the A\(_2\) affinity whereas the A\(_1\) affinity was attenuated, resulting in an up to 10-fold increase in A\(_2\) selectivity. A similar patternwas observed in adenylate cyclase assays andin platelet aggregation studies. A 30- to 45-fold selectivity for platelet A\(_2\) receptors compared to A\(_1\) receptors was found for compounds 8a-c in adenylate cyclase studies.
Photoaffinity-labeled N-formyl chemotactic peptide receptors from human neutrophils solubilized in octyl glucoside exhibit two forms upon sucrose density gradient sedimentation, with apparent Sedimentation coefficients of approximately 4 and 7 S. Tbe 7 S form can be converted to the 4 S form by guanosine 5' -0- (3-thiotriphosphate) (GTP-yS) with an EC&o of -20 nM, suggesting that the 7 S form may represent a physical complex of the receptor with endogenous G protein (Jesaitis, A. J., Tolley, J. 0., Bokoch, G. M., and Allen, R. A. (1989) J. Cell Biol. 109, 2783-2790). To probe the nature of the 7 S form, we reconstituted the 7 S form from the 4 S form by adding purified G protein. The 4 S form, obtained by solubilizing GTP-yS-treated neutrophil plasma membranes, was incubated with purified (>95%) G. protein from bovine brain (containing both G\(_{ia1}\) and G\(_{ia2}\)) or with neutrophil G protein (G\(_a\)), and formation of the 7 S complex was analyzed on sucrose density gradients. The EC\(_{50}\) of 7 S complex formation induced by the two G proteins was 70 \(\pm\) 25 and 170 \(\pm\) 40 DM for G\(_a\) and G\(_1\), respectively. No complexation was measurable when bovine transducin (G\(_t\)) was used up to 30 times the EC\(_{50\) for G\(_a\). The EC\(_{50}\) for G\(_t\) was the same for receptors, obtained from formyl peptide-stimulated or unstimulated cells. The addition of 10 \(\mu\)M GTP-yS to the reconstituted 7 S complex caused a complete reversion of the receptor to the 4 S form, and anti-G\(_1\) peptide antisera immunosedimented the 7 S form. ADP-ribosylation of Gt prevented formation of the 7 S form even at 20 times the concentration of unribosylated G. normally used to attain 50% conversion to the 7 S form. These observations suggest that the 7 S species is a pbysical complex containing N-formyl chemotactic peptide receptor and G protein.
The mechanism of the therapeutic and prophylactic effects of carbamazepine (CBZ) in affective psychoses is unknown but may in part be related to the potent competitive interaction of CBZ with adenosine-binding sites in the brain. The antioonvulsant and sedative properties of CBZ are reminiscent of the effects evoked by adenosine-agonists and contrast sharply with the opposite aclions of adenosine-antagonists like caffeine. However. indirect evidence suggests an antagonist- rather than an agonist-like activity of CBZ at adenosi11e-receptors. We have used various model systems, in which adenosine receptor subtypes mediate different second messenger-responses, to investigate this apparent paradox. CBZ was found to antagonize the A\(_1\) receptor-mediated inhibition of cydic AMP accumulation in cultured astroblasts and in GH3-cells. Furthermore, CBZ also inhibits the adenosine-induced increase in the level of cyclic AMP in cultured astroblasts, which is mediated by low-affinity A\(_{2b}\)-receptors. ln contrast, CBZ does not block the inhibition elicited by adenosine-agonists of the agonist-induced increased formation of inositolphosphates in human neutrophils, which is mediated by high-affinity A\(_{2a}\)-receptors. The specific antagonism by CBZ of A\(_1\)- but not of high-affinity A\(_{2a}\)-receptors was further supported by binding experiments using rat brain membranes. These results suggest tbat the paradox of CBZ's antagonistic effects at adenosine-receptors might be at least partially reconciled by a selective antagonistic action of CBZ at A\(_1\)recertors but not at high-affinity A\(_{2a}\)-receptors.
Radioligand binding to A\(_1\) adenosine receptors at brain membranes from seven species was investigated. The antagonist 8-cyclopentyl-1 ,3-[\(^3\)H]dipropylxanthine ([\(^3\)H]DPCPX) bound with affinities between 0.17 nM in sheep brain and 2.1 nM in guinea pig brain. Competition of several antagonists for [\(^3\)H]DPCPX binding showed that the most potent compounds were DPCPX with K\(_i\) values of 0.05 nM in bovine brain and 1.1 nM in guinea pig brain and xanthine amine congener (XAC) with K\(_i\) values of 0.03 nM in bovine brain and 5.5 nM in guinea pig brain. The differences in affinity of the agonist radio Iigand 2-chloro-N\(^6\) -[\(^3\)H]cyclopen tyladenosine ([\(^3\)H]CCP A) were less pronounced, rauging from a K\(_D\) value of 0.12 nM (hamster brain) to 0.42 nM (guinea pig brain). Agonist competition for [\(^3\)H]DPCPX binding of photoaffinity labelling, however, exhibited marked species differences. N-Ethylcarboxamidoadenosine (NECA) and S-N\(^6\)-phenylisopropyladenosine (S-PIA) showed 20 to 25-fold different K\(_D\) values in different species. NECA had a particularly high affinity in guinea pig brain and was only two-fold less potent than R-PIA. Thus, the difference from the "classical" A\(_1\) receptor profile (R-PIA > -NECA > S-PIA) is not sufficient to speculate that A\(_1\) receptor subtypes may exist that are coupled to different effector systems. Our data show that these difference can easily be explained by species differences.
Active neuropeptide Y receptors were solubilized from rabbit kidney membranes using the zwitterionic detergent 3-[ (3-cholamidopropy l)dimethylammonio ]- 1-propanesulfonic acid (CHAPS). In membrane fragmentsandsoluble extracts neuropeptide Y bindingwas time dependent, saturable, reversible, and of high affinity. Scatchard analysis of equilibrium binding data indicated a single class of binding sites with respective Kn and Bmax values of 0.09 nM and 530 fmol/mg of protein for the membrane-bound receptors and 0.10 nM and 1585 fmol/mg of protein for the soluble receptors. Neuropeptide Y bindingwas specifically inhibited by the nonhydrolyzable GTP analog guanosine 5' -0- (3-thiotripbosphate) in a concentration-dependent manner, with IC\(_{50}\) values of 28 and 0.14 \(\mu\)M for membrane- bound and soluble receptors, respectively, suggesting that neuropeptide Y receptors are functionally coupled to GTP-binding regulatory proteins. CrossHoking studies were performed with the heterobifunctional N-hydroxysuccinimidyl-4-azidobenzoate and the monofunctional neuropeptide Y derivative, azidobenzoyl and led to the identification of a 100 kDa peptide that should represent the covalently labeled neuropeptide Y receptor.
The effects of guanine nucleotides on binding of 8-cyclopentyl-1,3-[\(^3\)H]dipropylxanthine [\(^3\)H]DPCPX), a highly selective A\(_1\) adenosine receptor antagonist, have been investigated in rat brain membranes and solubilized A\(_1\) receptors. GTP, which induces uncoupling of receptors from guanine nucleotide binding proteins, increased binding of [\(^3\)H]DPCPX in a concentration-dependent manner. The rank order of potency for different guanine nucleotides for increasing [\(^3\)H]DPCPX bindingwas the same as for guanine nuc1eotide-induced inhibition of agonist binding. Therefore, a role for a guanine nucleotide binding protein, e.g., G\(_i\), in the regulation of antagonist binding is suggested. This was confirmed by inactivation ofGi by N-ethylmaleimide (NEM) treatment of membranes, which resulted in an increase in [\(^3\)H]DPCPX binding similar to that seen with addition of GTP. Kinetic and equilibrium binding studies showed that the GTP- or NEM-induced increase in antagonist binding was not caused by an affinity change of A\(-1\) receptors for [\(^3\)H]DPCPX but by an increased Bmu value. Guanine nucleotides had similar effects on membrane-bound and solubilized receptors, with the effects in the solubilized system being more pronounced. In the absence of GTP, when rnost receptors are in a high-affinity state for agonists, only a few receptors are labeled by [\(^3\)H]DPCPX. It is suggested that [\(^3\)H]DPCPX binding is inhibited when receptors are coupled to G\(_i\). Therefore, uncoupling of A\(_1\) receptors from G\(_i\) by guanine nucleotides or by inactivation of G\(_i\) with NEM results in an increased antagonist binding.
Key Words: Adenosine receptors-8 -Cyclopentyl-1,3-eH]dipropylxanthine-Antagenist binding-Guanine nucleotide effects. Klotz K.-N. et al. Guanine nucleotide etfects on 8-cyclopentyl-1 ,3-eH]dipropylxanthine binding to membrane-bound and solubilized A1 adenosine receptors of rat brain. J. Neurochem. 54, 1988-1994 (1990).
1 Adenosine and its metabolically stable analogue N.etbyl-carboxamidoadenosine (NECA) enhance histamine release from rat peritoneal mast cells when tbese are stimulated by calciummobilizing agents. NECA and adenosine shift the concentration-response curve of tbe calcium ionophore A23187 to lower concentrations. 2 The potencies of NECA or adenosinein enhancing A23187-induced histamine release are dependent on the Ievel of stimulated release in tbe absence of adenosine analogues. At high Ievels of release their potencies are up to 20 times higher than at low Ievels. Consequently, averaged concentration-response curves of adenosine and NECA for enhancing bistamine release are shallow. 3 The adenosine transport blocker S-(p-nitrobenzyl)-6-thioinosine (NBTI) has no effect by itself at low Ievels of stimulated histamine release, but abolishes the enhancing effect of adenosine. At high Ievels of release, however, NBTI alone enhances the release of histamine. 4 lt is concluded that adenosine and calcium reciprocally enhance the sensitivity of the secretory processes to the effects of the other agent. The Ievels of intracellular adenosine obtained by trapping adenosine inside stimulated mast cells are sufficient to enhance histamine release substantially, suggesting that this effect may play a physiological and pathophysiological role.
In the present work we studied the pharmacological profile of adenosine receptors in guinea pig atria by investigating the effect of different adenosine analogues on 86Rb + -efflux from isolated left atria and on binding of the antagonist radioligand 8-cyclopentyl-1 ,3-[\(^3\)H]dipropylxanthine ([\(^3\)H]DPCPX) to atrial membrane preparations. The rate of \8^{86}\)Rb\(^+\) -effiux was increased twofold by the maximally effective concentrations of adenosine receptor agonists. The EC50-values for 2-chloro-N\(^6\)-cyclopentyladenosine (CCPA), R-N\(^6\)-phenylisopropyladenosine (R-PIA), 5'-Nethylcarboxamidoadenosine (NECA), and S-N\(^6\)-phenylisopropyladenosine (S-PIA) were 0.10, 0.14, 0.24 and 12.9 \(\mu\)M, respectively. DPCPX shifted the R-PIA concentration-response curve to the right in a concentration-dependent manner with a K\(_B\)-value of 8.1 nM, indicating competitive antagonism. [\(^3\)H]DPCPX showed a saturable binding to atrial membranes with a Bmax·value of 227 fmol/mg protein and a K\(_D\)-value of 1.3 nM. Competition experiments showed a similar potency for the three agonists CCPA, R-PIA and NECA. S-PIA is 200 times less potent than R-PIA. Our results suggest that the K\(^+\) channel-coupled adenosine receptor in guinea pig atria is of an A\(_1\) subtype.
The tritiated analogue of 2-chloro-N6-cyclopentyladenosine (CCPA), an adenosine derivative with subnanomolar affinity and a 10000-fold selectivity for A1 adenosine receptors, has been examined as a new agonist radioligand. [3H]CCP A was prepared with a specifi.c radioactivity of 1.58 TBqjmmol ( 43 Ci/mmol) and bound in a reversible manner to A1 receptors from rat brain membranes with a high affinity K0 -value of 0.2 nmol/1. In the presence of GTP a K0 -value of 13 nmol/1 was determined for the low affinity state for agonist binding. Competition of several adenosine receptor agonists and antagonists for [3H]CCPA binding to rat brain membranes confrrmed binding to an A1 receptor. Solubilized A1 receptors bound [3H]CCPA with similar affinity for the high affinity state. At solubilized receptors a reduced association rate was observed in the presence of MgC12, as has been shown for the agonist [ 3H]N6-phenylisopropyladenosine ([3H]PIA). [3H]CCPA was also used for detection of A1 receptors in rat cardio myocyte membranes, a tissue with a very low receptor density. A K0 -value of 0.4 nmol/1 and a Bmax-value of 16 fmol/ mg protein was determined in these membranes. In human platelet membranes no specific binding of [3H]CCPA was measured at concentrations up to 400 nmoljl, indicating that A2 receptors did not bind [3H]CCPA. Based on the subnanomolar affinity and the high selectivity for A1 receptors [ 3H]CCPA proved to be a useful agonist radioligand for characterization of A 1 adenosine receptors also in tissues with very low receptor density.
Radiation inactivation analysis of the binding of the A1 adenosine receptor antagonist, 8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine to rat brain membranes yielded a radiation inactivation size of 58 kDa. In the presence of GTPyS this was reduced to 33 kDa, in good agreement with the size of the ligand-binding subunit detected after photoaffinity labelling. The data indicate that the structural association of A\(_1\) adenosine receptors with G-protein components is altered in situ in the presence of guanine nucleotides.
Chemical modification of amino acid residues was used to probe the ligand recognition site of A\(_1\) adenosine receptors from rat brain membranes. The effect of treatment with group·specific reagents on agonist and antagonist radioligand binding was investigated. The histidine-specific reagent diethylpyrocarbonate (DEP) induced a loss of binding of the agonist R-N\(^6\)-[\(^3\)H]phenylisopropyladenosine ([\(^3\)H]PIA), which could be prevented in part by agonists, but not by antagonists. DEP treatment induced also a loss of binding of the antagonist [\(^3\)H]8- cyclopentyl-1 ,3-dipropylxanthine ([\(^3\)H]DPCPX). Antagonists protected A\(_1\) receptors from this inactivation while agonists did not. This result provided evidence for the existence of at least 2 different histidine residues involved in ligand binding. Consistent with a modification of the binding site, DEP did not alter the affinity of [\(^3\)H]DPCPX, but reduced receptor number. From the selective protection of [\(^3\)H] PIA and [\(^3\)H]DPCPX binding from inactivation, it is concluded that agonists and antagonists oocupy different domains at the binding site. Sulfhydryl modifying reagents did not influence antagonist binding, but inhibited agonist binding. This effect is explained by modification of tbe inhibitory guanine nucleotide binding protein. Pyridoxal 5-phosphate inactivated both [\(^3\)H]PIA and [\(^3\)H]DPCPX binding, but the receptors could not be protected from inactivation by ligands. Therefore, no amino group seems to be located at the Iigand binding site. In addition, it was shown that no further amino acids witb polar side chains are present. The absence of bydrophilic amino acids frout the recognition site of the receptor apart from histidine suggests an explanation for the lack of hydrophilic ligands with high affinity for A\(_1\) receptors.
Tbe 2',3'-dideoxy analogue of the potent A\(_1\) receptor agonist, N\(^6\)-cyclohexyladenosine (CHA), was synthesized as a potential antagonist for the A\(_1\) adenosine receptor. In sturlies on adenylate cyclase 2',3'-dideoxy-N\(^6\)-cyclohexyladenosine (ddCHA) did not show agonist properties at A\(_1\) or at A\(_2\) receptors. However, it antagonized the inhibition by R-PIA of adenylate cyclase activity of fat cell membranes via A\(_1\) receptors with a K\(_i\) value of 13 \(\mu\)M. ddCHA competed for the binding of the selective A1 receptor antagonist, [\(^3\) HJ8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxantbine ([\(^3\)H]DPCPX), to rat brain membranes with a K\(_i\) value of 4.8 \(\mu\)M; GTP did not affect the competition curve. In contrast to the marked stereoselectivity of the A\(_1\) receptor for the cx- and the natural ß-anomer of adenosine, the cx-anomer of ddCHA showed a comparable affinity for the A\(_1\) receptor (K\(_i\) value 13.9 \8\mu\)M). These data indicate that the 2'- and 3'-hydroxy groups of adenosine and its derivatives are required foragonist activity at and high affinity binding to A\(_1\) adenosine receptors and for the distinction between the cx- and ß-forms.
2-Chloro-N\(^6\)-cyclopentyladenosine: a highly selective agonist at A\(_1\) adenosine receptors
(1988)
2-Chloro-N\(^6\)-cyclopentyladenosine (CCPA) was synthesized as a potential high affinity ligand for At adenosine receptors. Binding of [\(^3\)H]PIA to A1 receptors of rat brain membranes was inhibited by CCP A with a Ki-value of 0.4 nM, compared to a Ki-value of 0.8 nM for the parent compound N\(^6\)-cyclopentyladenosine (CPA). Binding of [\(^3\)H]NECA to A\(_2\) receptors of rat striatal membranes was inhibited with a Ki-value of 3900 nM, demonstrating an almost 10,000-fold A\(_1\)-selectivity of CCPA. CCP A inhibited the activity of rat fat cell membrane adenylate cyclase, a model for the A\(_1\) receptor, with an IC\(_{50}\)-value of 33 nM, and it stimulated the adenylate cyclase activity of human platelet membranes with an EC\(_{50}\)-value of 3500 nM. The more than 100-fold A\(_1\)-selectivity compares favourably with a 38-fold selectivity of CPA. Thus, CCPA is an agonist at A\(_1\) adenosine receptors with a 4-fold higher selectivity and 2-fold higher affinity than CPA, and a considerably higher selectivity than the standard At receptor agonist R-N\(^6\) -phenylisopropyladenosine (R-PIA). CCP A represents the agonist with the highest selectivity for A\(_1\) receptors reported so far.
Adenosine receptor agonists: Synthesis and biological evaluation of 1-deaza analogues of adenosine
(1988)
In a search for more selective A\(_1\) adenosine receptor agonists, N\(^6\)-[(R)-(-)-1-methyl-2-phenethyl]-1-deazaadenosine (1-deaza-R-PIA, 3a), N\(^6\)-cyclopentyl-1-deazaadenosine (1-deazaCPA, 3b), N\(^6\)-cyclohexyl-l-deazaadenosine (1-deazaCHA, Sc), and the corresponding 2-chloro derivatives 2a-c were synthesized from 5,7-dichloro-3-ß-D-ribofuranosyl-3Himidazo[ 4,5-b]pyridine (1). On the other band, N-ethyl-1'-deoxy-1'-(1-deaza-6-amino-9H-purin-9-yl)-ß-D-ribofuranuronamide (1-deazaNECA, 10) was prepared from 7-nitro-3-ß-D-ribofuranosyl-3H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (4), in an attempt to find a more selective A\(_2\) agonist. The activity of all deaza analogues at adenosine receptors has been determined in adenylate cyclase andin radioligand binding studies. 1-DeazaNECA (10) proved tobe a nonselective agonist at both subtypes of the adenosine receptor. It is about 10-fold less active than NECA but clearly more active than the parent compound 1-deazaadenosine as an inhibitor of platelet aggregation and as a stimulator of cyclic AMP accumulation. The N\(^6\)-substituted 1-deazaadenosines largely retain the A\(_1\) agonist activity of their parent compounds, but lose some of their A\(_2\) agonist activity. This results in A\(_1\)-selective compounds, of which N\(^6\)cyclopentyl- 2-chloro-1-deazaadenosine (1-deaza-2-Cl-CPA, 2b) was identified as the most selective agonist at A\(_1\) adenosine receptors so far known. The activity of all 1-deaza analogues confirms that the presence of the nitrogen atom at position 1 of the purine ring is not critical for A\(_1\) receptor mediated adenosine actions.
Human platelet membranes were solubilized with the zwitterionic detergent CHAPS (3-[3-(cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]- 1-propanesulfonate) and the solubilized extract subjected to gel ftltration. Binding of the adenosine receptor agonist [\(^3\)H]NECA (5'-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine) was measured to the eluted fractions. Two [\(^3\)H]NECA binding peaks were eluted, the first of them with the void volume. This first peak represented between 10% and 25% of the [\(^3\)H]NECA binding activity eluted from the column. It bound [\(^3\)H]NECA in a reversible, saturable and GTPdependent manner with an affinity of 46 nmol/1 and a binding capacity of 510 fmol/mg protein. Various adenosine receptor ligands competed for the binding of [\(^3\)H]NECA to the frrst peak with a pharmacological proftle characteristic for the A\(_2\) adenosine receptor as determined from adenylate cyclase experiments. In contrast, most adenosine receptor ligands did not compete for [\(^3\)H]NECA binding to the second, major peak. These results suggest that a solubilized A\(_2\) receptor-Gs protein complex of human platelets can be separated from other [\(^3\)H]NECA binding sites by gel filtration. This allows reliable radioligand binding studies of the A2 adenosine receptor of human plate1ets.
The effects of barbiturates on the GABA·receptor complex and the A\(_1\) adenosine receptor were studied. At the GABA-receptor complex the barbiturates inhibited the binding of [\(^{35}\)S]t-butylbicyclophosphorothionate [\(^{35}\)S]TBPT) and enhanced the binding of [\(^3\)H]diazepam. Kinetic and saturation experiments showed that both effects were allosteric. Whereas all barbiturates caused complete inhibition of [\(^{35}\)S]TBPT binding, they showed varying degrees of maximal enhancement of [\(^3\)H]diazepam binding; (±)methohexital was idenafied as the most efficacious compound for this enhancement. At the A\(_1\) adenosine receptor all barbiturates inhibited the binding of [\(^3\)H]N\(^6\)-phenylisopropyladenosine (\(^3\)H]PIA) in a competitive manner. The comparison of the effects on [\(^3\)H]diazepam and [\(^3\)H]PIA binding showed that excitatory barbiturates interact preferentially with the A\(_1\) adenosine receptor, and sedative/anaesthetic barbiturates with the GABA-receptor complex. It is speculated that the interaction with these two receptors might be the basis of the excitatory versus sedative/ anaesthetic properties of barbiturates.
The properties of 8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine (DPCPX) as an antagonist ligand for A\(_1\) adenosirre receptors were examined and conipared with other radioligands for this receptor. DPCPX competitively antagonized both the inhibition of adenylate cyclase activity via A\(_1\) adenosirre receptors and the stimulationvia A\(_2\) adenosirre receptors. The K\(_i\)-values of this antagonism were 0.45 nM at the A\(_1\) receptor of rat fat cells, and 330 nM at the A\(_2\) receptor of human platelets, giving a more than 700-fold A\(_1\)-selectivity. A similar A\(_1\)-selectivity was determined in radioligand binding studies. Even at high concentrations, DPCPX did not significantly inhibit the soluble cAMPphosphodiesterase activity of human platelets. [\(^3\)H]DPCPX (105 Ci/mmol) bound in a saturable manner with high affinity to A\(_1\) receptors in membranes of bovine brain and heart, and rat brain and fat cells (K\(_D\) -values 50-190 pM). Its nonspecific binding was about 1% of total at K\(_D\) , except in bovine myocardial membranes (about 10%). Binding studies with bovine myocardial membranes allowed the analysis of both the high and low agonist affinity states of this receptor in a tissue with low receptor density. The binding properties of [\(^3\)H]DPCPX appear superior to those of other agonist and antagonist radioligands for the A\(_1\) receptor.
A\(_1\) adenosine receptors from different tissues and species we~e photoaffinity labelled and then the carbohydrate content was examined by both enzymatic and chemical treatment. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of the labelled membrane receptors shows that neuraminidase treatment alters the electrophoretic mobility of the receptor band indica ting the presence of terminal neurandnie acids. Neuraminidase digestion does not influence the binding characteristics of the receptor. The totally deglycosylated receptor protein obtained by chemical treatment has an apparent molecular weight Of 32,000.
A\(_1\) adenosine receptors from rat brain membranes were solubilized with the zwitterionic detergent 3-[3-( cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate. The solubilized receptors retained all the characteristics of membrane-bound A\(_1\) adenosine receptors. A high and a low agonist affinity state for the radiolabelled agonist (R)-\(N^6\)-[\(^3\)H]phenylisopropyladenosine([\(^3\)H]PJA) with K\(_D\) values of 0.3 and 12 nM, respectively, were detected. High-affinity agonist binding was regulated by guanine nucleotides. In addition agonist binding was still modulated by divalent cations. The solubilized A\(_1\) adenosine receptors could be labelled not only with the agonist [\(^3\)H]PIA but also with the antagonist I ,3-diethyi-8-[\(^3\)H]phenylxanthine. Guanine nucleotides did not affect antagonist binding as reported for membrane-bound receptors. These results suggest that the solubilized receptors are still coupled to the guanine nucleotide binding protein N; and that all regulatory functions are retained on solubilization. Key Words: A1 adenosine receptors - Solubilization- Rat brain membranes. Klotz K.-N. et al. Characterization of the solubilized A1 adenosine receptor from rat brain membranes. J. Neurochem. 46, 1528-1534 (1986).
Insulin receptors were solubilized from rat liver microsomes by the nonionic detergent Triton X-100. After gel filtration of the extract on Sepharose CL-6B, two insulin-binding species (peak I and peak li) were obtained. The structure and binding properties of both peaks were characterized. Gel filtration yielded Stokes radii of 9.2 nm (peak I) and 8.0 nm (peak Il). Both peaks were glycoproteins. At 4°C peak 1 showed optimal insulin binding at pH 8.0 and high ionic strength. In contrast, peak li bad its binding optimum at pH 7.0 and low ionic strength, where peak I bindingwas minimal. For peak I the change in insulin binding under different conditions of pH and ionic strength was due to a change in receptor affinity only. For peak 11 an additional change in receptor number was found. Both peaks yielded non-linear Scatchard plots under most of the buffer conditions examined. At their binding optima at 4 oc the high affinity dissociation constants were 0.50 nM (peak I) and 0.55 nM (peak II). Sodium dodecyl sulfatejpolyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of peak I revealed five receptor bands with Mr 400000, 365000, 320000, 290000, and 245000 under non-reducing conditions. For peak II two major receptor bands with M\(_r\) 210000 and 115000 were found. The peak II receptor bands were also obtained aftermild reduction of peak I. After complete reduction both peaks showed one major receptor band with M\(_r\) 130000. The reductive generation of the peak II receptor together with molecular mass estimations suggest that the peak I receptor is the disulfide-linked dimer of the peak II receptor. Thus, Triton extracts from rat liver microsomes contain two receptor species, which are related, but differ considerably in their size and insulin-binding properties.
Adenosine receptors in guinea pig lung were characterized by measurement of cyclic AMP formation and radioligand binding. 5'-N-Ethylcarboxamidoadenosine (NECA) increased cyclic AMP Ievels in lung slices about 4-fold over basal values with an EC\(_{50}\) of 0.32 \(\mu\)mol/l. N\(^6\) - R-(- )-Phenylisopropyladenosine (R-PIA) was 5-fold less potent than NECA. 5'-N-Methylcarboxamidoadenosine (MECA) and 2-chloroadenosine had EC\(_{50}\)-values of 0.29 and 2.6 \(\mu\)mol/l, whereas adenosine and inosine had no effect. The adenosine receptors in guinea pig Iung can therefore be classified as A\(_2\) receptors. Several xanthine derivatives antagonized the NECA-induced increase in cyclic AMP levels. 1,3-Diethyl-8-phenylxanthine (DPX; K\(_i\) 0.14 \(\mu\)mol/l) was the most potent analogue, followed by 8-phenyltheophylline (K\(_i\) 0.55 \(\mu\)mol/l), 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX; K\(_i\) 2.9 \(\mu\)mol/l) and theophylline (K\(_i\) 8.1 \(\mu\)mol/l). In contrast, enprofylline (1 mmol/1) enhanced basal and NECA-stimulated cyclic AMP formation. In addition, we attempted to characterize these receptors in binding studies with [\(^3\)H]NECA. The K\(_D\) for [\(^3\)H] NECA was 0.25 \(\mu\)mol/l and the maximal number of binding sites was 12 pmol/mg protein. In competition experiments MECA (K\(_i\) 0.14 \(\mu\)mol/l) was the most potent inhibitor of [\(^3\)H] NECA binding, followed by NECA (K\(_i\) 0.19 \(\mu\)mol/l) and 2-chloroadenosine (K\(_i\) 1.4 \(\mu\)mol/l). These results correlate well with the EC\(_{50}\)- values for cyclic AMP formation in lung slices. However, the K\(_i\)-values of R-PIA and theophylline were 240 and 270 \(\mu\)mol/l, and DPX and 8-phenyltheophylline did not compete for [\(^3\)H]NECA binding sites. Therefore, a complete characterization of A\(_2\) adenosine receptors by [\(^3\)H] NECA binding was not achieved. In conclusion, our results show the presence of adenylate cyclase-coupled A\(_2\) adenosiile receptors in lung tissue which are antagonized by several xanthines.
The ligand-binding subunit of the A\(_1\)-adenosine receptor has been identified by photoaffinity labeling. A photolabile derivative of R- \(N^6\)-phenylisopropyladenosine, R-2-azido-\(N^6\)-p-hydroxyphenylisopropyladenosine (R-AHPIA), has been synthesized as a covalent specific Iigand for A\(_1\)-adenosine receptors. In adenylate cyclase studies with membranes of rat fat cells and human platelets, R·AHPIA has adenosine receptor agonist activity with a more than 60-fold selectivity for the A\(_1\)-subtype. It competes for [\(^3\)H].\(N^6\)- phenylisopropyladenosine binding to Arreceptors of rat brain membranes with a Ki value of 1.6 nM. After UV irradiation, R-AHPIA binds irreversibly to the receptor, as indicated by a loss of [\(^3\)H)\(N^6\)-phenylisopropyladenosine binding afterextensive washing; the K; value for this photoinactivation is 1.3 nM. The p-hydroxyphenyl substituent of R-AHPIA can be directly radioiodinated to give a photoaffinity Iabel of high specific radioactivity (\(^{125}\)I-AHPIA). This compound has a KD value of about 1.5 nM as assessed from saturation and kinetic experiments. Adenosine analogues compete for \(^{125}\)I-AHPIA binding to rat brain membranes with an order of potency characteristic for A\(_1\)-adenosine receptors. Dissociation curves following UV irradiation at equilibrium demonstrate 30-40% irreversible specific binding. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis indicates that the probe is photoincorporated into a single peptide of M\(_r\) = 35,000. Labeling of this peptide can be blocked specifically and stereoselectively by adenosine receptor agonists and antagonists in a manner which is typical for the A\(_1\)-subtype. The results indicate that \(^{125}\)I-AHPIA identifies the ligand-binding subunit of the A\(_1\)-adenosine receptor, which is a peptide with M\(_r\) = 35,000.
Barbiturates in pharmacologically relevant . concentrations inhibit binding of (R)-\(N^6\)-phenylisopropyl[\(^3\)H]adenosine ([\(^3\)H]PIA) to solubilized A\(_1\) adenosine receptors in a concentration-dependent, stereospecific, and competitive manner. K\(_i\) values are similar to those obtained for membrane-bound receptors and are 31 \(\mu\)M for ( ± )-5-(1 ,3-dimethyl)-5-ethylbarbituric acid [( ± )DMBB] and 89 \(\mu\)M for ( ± )-pentobarbital. Kinetic experiments demoostrate that barbiturates compete directly for the binding site of the receptor. The inhibition of rat striatal adenylate cyclase by unlabelled (R)-\(N^6\)-phenylisopropyladenosine [(R)-PIA] is antagonized by barbiturates in the same concentrations that inhibit radioligand binding. The Stimulation of adenylate cyclase via A\(_2\) adenosine receptors in membranes from NIE 115 neuroblastoma cells is antagonized only by 10-30 times higher concentrations of barbiturates. lt is concluded that barbiturates are selective antagonists at the A1 receptor subtype. In analogy to the excitatory effects of methylxanthines it is suggested that A\(_1\) adenosine receptor antagonism may convey excitatory properties to barbiturates. Key Words: Adenosine receptors-Barbiturates - Adenylate cyclase-Receptor solubilization-[3H]PIA binding-N1E 115 cells. Lohse M. J. et al. Barbiturates are selective antagonists at A1 adenosine receptors.
Sowohl MAPK als auch Adenosin werden mit Tumorproliferation und Angiogenese in Verbindung gebracht. MDA-MB-231 Östrogenrezeptor-negative Brustkrebszellen zeigen eine sehr starke Expression des A2BAR, der außerdem der einzige von dieser Zelllinie exprimierte Adenosinrezeptor ist. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass MDA-MB-231-Brustkrebszellen eine hohe basale MAPK-Aktivität aufweisen, welche durch Stimulation mit FCS nicht weiter gesteigert werden kann. Diese hohe basale MAPK-Aktivität wird durch die src-Kinase und Her2 verursacht, da eine Inhibition dieser beiden Tyrosinkinasen eine Hemmung der basalen ERK-Phosphorylierung induziert. Interessanterweise führt die Stimulation des A2BAR der MDA-MB-231-Brustkrebszellen mit dem unselektiven Agonisten NECA zu einer zeitanhängigen Inhibition der ERK-1/2-Phosphorylierung. Eine Behandlung der Brustkrebszelllinie mit 10 µM CGS 21680 zeigten keinen Einfluss auf die ERK-Aktivität, weshalb davon ausgegangen werden kann, dass die zeitabhängige Inhibition der ERK-1/2-Phosphorylierung durch den A2BAR vermittelt wird. Eine Beteiligung von cAMP an der MAPK-Signaltransduktion des A2BAR scheint insofern wahrscheinlich, als sowohl eine Behandlung der Zellen mit Forskolin als auch der Kombination aus cAMP-AM und dem PDE4-Inhibitor Rolipram eine zeitabhängige Hemmung der ERK-1/2-Phosphorylierung induzieren. Jedoch scheint weder die PKA noch die PI3K an dieser Signaltransduktion des A2BAR beteiligt zu sein, da die A2BAR-vermittelte Inhibition der MAPK auch in Anwesenheit von PKA- und PI3K-Inhibitoren bestehen bleibt. Auch scheinen cAMP-GEFs wie beispielsweise Epac in diesem Zusammenhang keine Rolle zu spielen. In Gegenwart des PLC-Inhibitors U-73122 und des Ca2+-Chelators BAPTA verschwand die NECA-induzierte Hemmung der ERK-1/2-Phosphorylierung, was für eine Beteiligung der PLC und des Ca2+ an der A2BAR-vermittelten Hemmung der MAPK-Aktivität spricht. Letzten Endes konnte jedoch kein Mechanismus eruiert werden, welcher diese A2BAR-vermittelte, Ca2+-abhängige MAPK-Hemmung mediiert, da weder eine Inhibition der PKC, der CamKII oder des Calcineurins Einfluss auf die NECA-induzierte MAPK-Hemmung hatten. Was Wachstum und Proliferation der Östrogenrezeptor-negativen Brustkrebszelllinie MDA-MB-231 anbelangt, so konnte gezeigt werden, dass der unselektive Agonist NECA zu einer signifikanten Wachstumshemmung dieser Brustkrebszelllinie führt. Allerdings kommt es aufgrund einer Desensitisierung der A2BAR in MDA-MB-231-Brustkrebszellen lediglich zu einem transienten proliferationshemmenden Effekt nach Stimulation mit NECA.
Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, zu untersuchen, ob nichtionisierende elektromagnetische Strahlung verschiedener Frequenzbereiche Genomschaden hervorrufen kann. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde eine Biomonitoring-Studie zu dieser Thematik konzipiert und durchgeführt. Es wurden 131 Probanden detailliert zu ihrer Mobilfunknutzung befragt. Anschließend wurden Mundschleimhautzellen entnommen und für eine mikroskopische Untersuchung aufbereitet und angefärbt. In den Zellen wurden Mikrokerne und andere Kernanomalien quantifiziert. Es zeigte sich keine Erhöhung der Mikrokernfrequenz in Abhängigkeit von der Dauer der Mobiltelefonnutzung. Auch die anderen abgefragten Parameter hatten keinen Einfluss auf die Höhe des Genomschadens. Als Positivkontrollen wurden vier Patienten, die eine lokale Strahlentherapie (ionisierende Strahlung) erhielten, eingeschlossen. Hier zeigte sich eine deutliche Erhöhung der Mikrokernfrequenz. Um festzustellen, ob die Mikrokerninduktion erst bei höheren Leistungsflussdichten als denen, die beim Mobilfunk verwendet werden, auftritt, wurden in-vitro-Versuche durchgeführt, bei denen verschiedene Zelllinien einer Strahlung von 900 MHz ausgesetzt wurden. Nach Exposition und einer Postinkubationsperiode wurden die Zellen fixiert und die Mikrokernfrequenz bestimmt. Neben den Leistungen wurden hier auch die Expositionszeiten und die Postinkubationsperioden variiert. In keinem Fall konnte eine Erhöhung der Mikrokernfrequenz festgestellt werden. Insgesamt konnte ein Einfluss elektromagnetischer Strahlung auf das Genom weder am Menschen im Rahmen einer Biomonitoring-Studie noch an verschiedenen Zelllinien im Rahmen von in-vitro-Versuchen festgestellt werden. Terahertzstrahlung ist elektromagnetische Strahlung im Bereich von 0,1 bis 10 THz, d. h. sie liegt zwischen Mikrowellen und Infrarotlicht. Derzeit wird sie hauptsächlich für spektroskopische Untersuchungen und zur Qualitätskontrolle im Herstellungs-prozess verschiedener Produkte verwendet. Anwendungen in der Sicherheitstechnik (z. B. Ganzkörperscanner) und in der Medizintechnik (z. B. Bildgebung) stehen kurz vor der Markteinführung bzw. sind bereits etabliert. Diese Anwendungen bringen eine Exposition der betroffenen Menschen mit sich. Außerdem wird an weiteren Techniken wie etwa der Datenübertragung gearbeitet. Die Wirkungen auf biologische Systeme sind im Gegensatz zum Mobilfunkbereich bisher nur unzureichend untersucht. Da bisher keine vollständigen Literaturübersichten vorlagen, wurde eine umfassende Literaturrecherche durchgeführt. Ziel war es, alle bisher durchgeführten Studien zu diesem Thema aufzulisten. Um diese Datenbasis zu verbreitern wurden in-vitro-Versuche bei verschiedenen Frequenzen durchgeführt. Als Strahlungsquellen wurden eine Frequenzvervielfacherkaskade (0,106 THz), ein Rückwärtswellen-Oszillator (0,380 THz) und ein Ferninfrarot-Laser (2,520 THz) eingesetzt. Die Strahlung wurde in einen modifizierten Inkubator geführt, so dass die Expositionen bei definierter Temperatur und konstantem CO2-Gehalt durchgeführt werden konnten. Da Terahertzstrahlung durch Wasser sehr stark absorbiert wird, sind bei einer Exposition des Menschen primär die obersten Hautschichten betroffen. Aus diesem Grund wurden primäre Hautfibroblasten und HaCaT-Zellen, eine Keratinozyten-Zelllinie, als biologische Systeme verwendet. Die Zellen wurden für unterschiedliche Zeitperioden mit verschiedenen Leistungsflussdichten exponiert. Anschließend wurden die Zellen für den Comet Assay aufbereitet und analysiert. Der Comet Assay ist eine Methode zur Quantifizierung von Einzel- und Doppelstrangbrüchen der DNA. Weiterhin wurden die Zellen nach einer Postinkubationsperiode für den Mikrokerntest aufbereitet. Neben unbehandelten Kontrollen und Sham-Expositionen wurden auch Positivkontrollen durchgeführt. Es konnte keine Erhöhung der Anzahl der DNA-Strangbrüche bzw. der Mikrokernfrequenz festgestellt werden. Da bekannt war, dass im Mobilfunkbereich unter bestimmten Bedingungen Störungen der Mitose, nicht aber Erhöhungen der Mikrokernfrequenz, auftreten, wurden Mitosestörungen nach Exposition bei 0,106 THz untersucht. Hierzu wurden AL-Zellen für 30 Minuten exponiert und anschließend ohne Postinkubation direkt fixiert. Analysiert wurden Störungen in allen Phasen der Mitose. Es zeigte sich, dass die Frequenz der Störungen in der Pro- und Metaphase unverändert blieb. Die Störungen in der Ana- und Telophase nahmen dagegen mit steigender Leistungsflussdichte zu. Insgesamt konnte im Terahertzbereich unter den gewählten Expositionsbedingungen kein DNA-Schaden beobachtet werden. Bei 0,106 THz konnten Mitosestörungen als Folge der Exposition gezeigt werden. Der Zusammenhang zwischen diesen Mitosestörungen und DNA-Schäden, insbesondere der Mikrokerninduktion, konnte bisher nicht abschließend geklärt werden und bleibt Gegenstand weiterer Untersuchungen.
Furan was recently found to be present in a variety of food items that undergo heat treatment. It is known to act as a potent hepatotoxin and liver carcinogen in rodents. In a 2-year bioassay, chronic furan administration to rats was shown to cause hepatocellular adenomas and carcinomas and very high incidences of cholangiocarcinomas even at the lowest furan dose tested (2.0 mg/kg bw). However, the mechanisms of furan-induced tumor formation are poorly understood. Furan is metabolized by cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes, predominantly CYP2E1, to its major metabolite cis-2-butene-1,4-dial (BDA). BDA is thought to be the key mediator of furan toxicity and carcinogenicity and was shown to react with cellular nucleophiles such as nucleosides and amino acid residues in vitro. It is well known that covalent protein binding may lead to cytotoxicity, but the cellular mechanisms involved remain to be elucidated. Since covalent binding of reactive intermediates to a target protein may result in loss of protein function and subsequent damage to the cell, the aim of this study was to identify furan target proteins to establish their role in the pathogenesis of furan-associated liver toxicity and carcinogenicity. In order to identify target proteins of furan reactive metabolites, male F344/N rats were administered [3,4-14C]-furan. Liquid scintillation counting of protein extracts revealed a dose-dependent increase of radioactivity covalently bound to liver proteins. After separation of the liver protein extracts by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and subsequent detection of radioactive spots by fluorography, target proteins of reactive furan intermediates were identified by mass spectrometry and database search via Mascot. A total of 61 putative target proteins were consistently found to be adducted in 3 furan-treated rats. The identified proteins represent - among others - enzymes, transport proteins, structural proteins and chaperones. Pathway mapping tools revealed that target proteins are predominantly located in the cytosol and mitochondria and participate in glucose metabolism, mitochondrial β-oxidation of fatty acids, and amino acid degradation. These findings together with the fact that ATP synthase β subunit was also identified as a putative target protein strongly suggest that binding of furan reactive metabolites to proteins may result in mitochondrial injury, impaired cellular energy production, and altered redox state, which may contribute to cell death. Moreover, several proteins involved in the regulation of redox homeostasis represent putative furan target proteins. Loss of function of these proteins by covalent binding of furan reactive metabolites may impair cellular defense mechanisms against oxidative stress, which may also result in cell death. Besides the potential malfunction of whole pathways due to loss of functions of several participating proteins, loss of function of individual proteins which are involved in various cellular processes such as transport processes across the mitochondrial membranes, cell signaling, DNA methylation, blood coagulation, and bile acid transport may also contribute to furan-induced cytotoxicity and carcinogenicity. Covalent binding of reactive metabolites to cellular proteins may result in accumulation of high amounts of unfolded or damaged proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). In response to this ER stress, the cell can activate the unfolded protein response (UPR) to repair or degrade damaged proteins. To address whether binding of furan reactive metabolites to cellular proteins triggers activation of the UPR, semiquantitative PCR and TaqMan® real-time PCR were performed. In the case of UPR activation, semiquantitative PCR should show enhanced splicing of X-box binding protein-1 (XBP1) mRNA (transcription factor and key regulator of the UPR) and TaqMan® real-time PCR should determine an increased expression of UPR target genes. However, our data showed no evidence for activation of the UPR in the livers of rats treated either with a single hepatotoxic dose or with a known carcinogenic dose for 4 weeks. This suggests either that furan administration does not induce ER stress through accumulation of damaged proteins or that activation of the UPR is disrupted. Consistent with the latter, glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78), identified as a target protein in our study, represents an important mediator involved in activation of the UPR whose inhibition was shown to impair induction of the UPR. Thus, adduct formation and inactivation of GRP78 by furan metabolites may disturb activation of the UPR. In addition to impaired activation of UPR, protein repair and degradation functions may be altered, because several proteins involved in these processes also represent target proteins of furan and thus may show impaired functionality. Taken together...
Aktivierte G-Protein gekoppelte Rezeptoren aktivieren heterotrimere GProteine, in dem sie den Austausch von GDP zu GTP am G-Protein katalysieren. Theoretische Untersuchungen mittels eines vereinfachten kinetischen Modells des Gi/o-Protein Zyklus legen nahe, dass nicht nur GDP-,sondern auch GTP-gebundene Gi/o-Proteine mit aktivierten α2A-adrenergen Rezeptoren (α2A-AR) interagieren können. Demgemäß sollten aktivierte Gi/o-Proteine mit aktivierten α2A-AR vermehrt interagieren, wenn mehr α2A-AR aktiviert werden als für eine maximale G-Protein Aktivierung nötig sind. Dies sollte zu einer paradoxen Deaktivierung von Gi/o-Proteinen und deren Effektorproteinen, z.B. dem G-Protein gekoppelten, einwärtsgleichrichtenden Kaliumkanal (GIRK-Kanal) führen. Mittels FRET lässt sich in lebenden und in permeabilisierten Zellen unter Kontrolle der intrazellulären Nukleotide die Aktivierung von α2A-AR, die Interaktion von Gi/o-Proteinen mit α2A-AR und die Aktivierung von Gi/o-Proteinen bestimmen. Die Arbeit zeigt auf mehreren Ebenen, dass Go-Proteine mit aktivierten α2A-AR interagieren und im nukleotidfreiem Zustand sequestriert werden können: (I) Go-Proteine,irreversibel durch GTPγS aktiviert werden abhängig von der Rezeptor Aktivierung in Abwesenheit von Nukleotiden deaktiviert, (II) Go-Proteine interagieren in Gegenwart niedriger Nukleotidkonzentrationen in wesentlich größer Fraktion mit aktivierten α2A-AR als in Gegenwart hoher Nukleotidkonzentrationen, (III) Go Proteine können in Gegenwart niedriger GTP und GTPγS-Konzentrationen bei Aktivierung des α2A-AR inaktiviert werden. Die Arbeit zeigt exemplarisch an der Signalkaskade des α2A-AR und Go, dass der G-Protein Zyklus in lebenden Zellen reversibel ist, woraus eine Deaktivierung aktivierter G-Proteine und aktivierter G-Protein Effektoren resultieren kann. Dies erklärt paradoxe Befunde zur Deaktivierung von GIRK-Kanälen in Myozyten durch A1-Rezeptoren.
Male Fischer F-344 rats were given ethanol in the drinking water and/or by single oral administration. Following this, the animals received p.o. 100 ng/kg of the hepatocarcinogen eHJaflatoxin BI (AFBI)' 24 h later, the level of DNA-bound AFBI was determined in the liver and was found not to be affected by any type of ethanol pretreatment. A cocarcinogenic effect of ethanol in the liver is therefore unlikely to be due to an effect on the metabolic activation and inactivation processes governing the formation of DNA-binding AFBI metabolites.
Ernährung und Krebs
(1985)
No abstract available
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are continuously generated in cells and are involved in physiological processes including signal transduction but also their damaging effects on biological molecules have been well described. A number of reports in the literature implicate excessive oxidative stress and/or inadequate antioxidant defense in the pathogenesis of cancer, atherosclerosis, chronic and age related disorders. Several studies have indicated that activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system can lead to the formation of ROS. Epidemiological studies have revealed higher renal cell cancer incidences and also higher cancer mortalities in hypertensive individuals. Recently, our group has shown that perfusion of the isolated mouse kidney with Ang II or treatment of several cell lines with Ang II leads to formation of DNA damage and oxidative base modifications. Here, we tried to scrutinize the pathway involved in genotoxicity of Ang II. We confirmed the genotoxicity of Ang II in two kidney cell lines of human origin. Ang II treatment led to the production of superoxide anions which we could hinder when we used the membrane permeable superoxide dismutase (SOD) mimetic TEMPOL. One of the enzymes which is activated in the cells after Ang II treatment and is able to produce ROS is NADPH oxidase. We demonstrated the activation of NADPH oxidase in response to Ang II by upregulation of its p47 subunit using RT-PCR. Also, pPhosphorylation of p47 subunit of NADPH oxidase after Ang II treatment was enhanced. Using two inhibitors we showed that NADPH oxidase inhibition completely prevents DNA damage by Ang II treatment. To differentiate between Nox2 and Nox4 isoforms of NADPH oxidase subunits in the genotoxicity of Ang II, we performed siRNA inhibition and found a role only for Nox4, while Nox2 was not involved. Next, we investigated PKC as a potential activator of NADPH oxidase. We showed that PKC becomes phosphorylated after Ang II treatment and also that inhibition of PKC hinders Ang II from damaging the cells. Our results from using several inhibitors of different parts of the pathway revealed that PKC activation in this pathway is dependent on the action of PLC on membrane phospholipids and production of IP3. IP3 binds to its receptor at endoplasmic reticulum (ER), opening a channel which allows calcium efflux into the cytoplasm. In this manner, both ER calcium stores and extracellular calcium cooperate so that Ang II can exert its genotoxic effect. PLC is activated by AT1R stimulation. We could also show that the genotoxicity of Ang II is mediated via AT1R signaling using the AT1R antagonist candesartan. In conclusion, here we have shown that Ang II is able to damage genomic damage in cell lines of kidney origin. The observed damage is associated with production of ROS. A decrease in Ang II-induced DNA damage was observed after inhibition of G-proteins, PLC, PKC and NADPH oxidase and interfering with intra- as well as extracellular calcium signaling. This leads to the following preliminary model of signaling in Ang II-induced DNA damage: binding of Ang II to the AT1 receptor activates PLC via stimulation of G-proteins, resulting in the activation of PKC in a calcium dependent manner which in turn, activates NADPH oxidase. NADPH oxidase with involvement of its Nox4 subunit then produces reactive oxygen species which cause DNA damage. Dopamine content and metabolism in the peripheral lymphocytes of PD patients are influenced by L-Dopa administration. The PD patients receiving a high dose of L-Dopa show a significantly higher content of dopamine in their lymphocytes compared to PD patients who received a low dose of L-Dopa or the healthy control. Central to many of the processes involved in oxidative stress and oxidative damage in PD are the actions of monoamine oxidase (MAO), the enzyme which is responsible for the enzymatic oxidation of dopamine which leadsing to production of H2O2 as a by-product. We investigated whether dopamine oxidation can cause genotoxicity in lymphocytes of PD patents who were under high dose L-Dopa therapy and afterward questioned the occurrence of DNA damage after dopamine treatment in vitro and tried to reveal the mechanism by which dopamine exerts its genotoxic effect. The frequency of micronuclei in peripheral blood lymphocytes of the PD patients was not elevated compared to healthy age-matched individuals, although the formation of micronuclei revealed a positive correlation with the daily dose of L-Dopa administration in patients who received L-Dopa therapy together with dopamine receptor agonists. In vitro, we describe an induction of genomic damage detected as micronucleus formation by low micromolar concentrations in cell lines with of different tissue origins. The genotoxic effect of dopamine was reduced by addition of the antioxidants TEMPOL and dimethylthiourea which proved the involvement of ROS production in dopamine-induced DNA damage. To determine whether oxidation of dopamine by MAO is relevant in its genotoxicity, we inhibited MAO with two inhibitors, trans-2-phenylcyclopropylamine hydrochloride (PCPA) and Ro 16-6491 which both reduced the formation of micronuclei in PC-12 cells. We also studied the role of the dopamine transporter (DAT) and dopamine type 2 receptor (D2R) signaling in the genotoxicity of dopamine. Inhibitors of the DAT, GBR-12909 and nomifensine, hindered dopamine-induced genotoxicity. These results were confirmed by treatment of MDCK and MDCK-DAT cells, the latter containing the human DAT gene, with dopamine. Only MDCK-DAT cells showed elevated chromosomal damage and dopamine uptake. Although stimulation of D2R with quinpirole in the absence of dopamine did not induce genotoxicity in PC-12 cells, interference with D2R signaling using D2R antagonist and inhibition of G-proteins, phosphoinositide 3 kinase and extracellular signal-regulated kinases reduced dopamine-induced genotoxicity and affected the ability of DAT to take up dopamine. Furthermore, the D2R antagonist sulpiride inhibited the dopamine-induced migration of DAT from cytosol to cell membrane. Overall, the neurotransmitter dopamine causes DNA damage and oxidative stress in vitro. There are also indications that high dose L-Dopa therapy might lead to oxidative stress. Dopamine exerts its genotoxicity in vitro upon transport into the cells and oxidization oxidation by MAO. Transport of dopamine by DAT has the central role in this process. D2R signaling is involved in the genotoxicity of dopamine by affecting activation and cell surface expression of DAT and hence modulating dopamine uptake. We provided evidences for receptor-mediated genotoxicity of two compounds with different mechanism of actions. The involvement of these receptors in many human complications urges more investigations to reveal whether abnormalities in the endogenous compounds-mediated signaling can play a role in the initiation of new conditions like carcinogenesis.
Several epidemiological studies found that hypertensive patients have an increased risk to develop kidney cancer. Hyperaldosteronism frequently results in arterial hypertension and contributes to the development and progression of kidney injury, with reactive oxygen species (ROS) playing an important role. ROS are thought to be associated with many pathological conditions such as cancer and other disorders, like cardiovascular complications , which often go along with hypertension. The aim of the present work was to investigate whether the effects of elevated aldosterone concentrations might be involved in the increased cancer incidence of hypertensive individuals. First, the potential capacity of aldosterone to induce oxidative stress and DNA damage was investigated in vitro and in vivo. In LLC-PK1 porcine kidney cells and MDCK canine kidney cells the significant formation of ROS, and especially of superoxide (O2˙ˉ) was assessed. With two genotoxicity tests, the comet assay and the micronucleus frequency test, the DNA damaging potential of aldosterone was quantified. In both genotoxicity tests a dose-dependent increase in aldosterone-induced structural DNA damage was observed. Oxidative stress and DNA damage were prevented by antioxidants, suggesting ROS as a major cause of DNA damage. Furthermore, the oxidatively modified DNA lesion 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2´-deoxyguanosine (8-oxodG), was found to be significantly elevated. In kidneys of rats with desoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA)/salt-induced hypertension, which is a model of severe mineralocorticoid-dependent hypertension, elevated levels of ROS and superoxide were found, compared to kidneys of sham rats. Also DNA strand breaks, measured with the comet assay and double strand breaks, visualized with antibodies against the double strand break-marker gamma-H2AX were significantly elevated in kidneys of DOCA/salt-treated rats. In addition, significantly increased amounts of 8-oxodG were detected. Proliferation of kidney cells was found to be increased, which theoretically enables the DNA damage to manifest itself as mutations, since the cells divide. Second, the effects of aldosterone on the activation of transcription factors and signaling pathways were investigated. A significant activation of the potentially protective transcription factor Nrf2 was observed in LLC-PK1 cells. This activation was triggered by an increase of ROS or reactive nitrogen species (RNS). In response to oxidative stress, glutathione synthesis and detoxifying enzymes, such as the subunits of the glutathione-cysteine-ligase or heme oxygenase 1 were rapidly induced after 4 h. Nevertheless, after 24 h a decrease of glutathione levels was observed. Since ROS levels were still high after 24 h, but Nrf2 activation decreased, this adaptive survival response seems to be transient and quickly saturated and overwhelmed by ROS/RNS. Furthermore, Nrf2 activation was not sufficient to protect cells against oxidative DNA damage, because the amounts of double strand breaks and 8-oxodG lesions steadily rose up to 48 h of aldosterone treatment. The second transcription factor that was time- and dose-dependently activated by aldosterone in LLC-PK1 and MDCK cells was NF-kappaB. Furthermore, a significant cytosolic and nuclear activation of ERK was detected. Aldosterone induced the phosphorylation of the transcription factors CREB, STAT1 and STAT3 through ERK. Third, the underlying mechanisms of oxidant production, DNA damage and activation of transcription factors and signaling pathways were studied. Aldosterone exclusively acted via the MR, which was proven by the MR antagonists eplerenone, spironolactone and BR-4628, whereas the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) antagonist mifepristone did not show any effect. Furthermore, aldosterone needed cytosolic calcium to exert its negative effects. Calcium from intracellular stores and the influx of calcium across the plasma membrane was involved in aldosterone signaling. The calcium signal activated on the one hand, the prooxidant enzyme complex NAD(P)H oxidase through PKC, which subsequently caused the generation of O2˙ˉ. On the other hand, nitric oxide synthase (NOS) was activated, which in turn produced NO. NO and O2˙ˉ can react to the highly reactive species ONOO- that can damage the DNA more severely than the less reactive O2˙ˉ. In the short term, the activation of transcription factors and signaling pathways could be a protective response against aldosterone-induced oxidative stress and DNA damage. However, a long-term NF-B and ERK/CREB/STAT activation by persistently high aldosterone levels could unfold the prosurvival activity of NF-kappaB and ERK/CREB/STAT in aldosterone-exposed cells. DNA damage caused by increased ROS might become persistent and could be inherited to daughter cells, probably initiating carcinogenesis. If these events also occur in patients with hyperaldosteronism, these results suggest that aldosterone could be involved in the increased cancer incidence of hypertensive individuals.
MicroRNAs sind kleine, nicht kodierende RNA-Moleküle, die posttranskriptionell die Genexpression regulieren. Sie binden hierfür spezifisch an 3’-UTRs von messenger-RNAs und führen entweder direkt zu deren Abbau oder inhibieren deren Translation. Über die Mechanismen, die die Expression von microRNAs regulieren, ist jedoch noch wenig bekannt. Die Tatsache, dass sie als lange Vorläufermoleküle (pri-microRNAs) durch die RNA-Polymerase-II transkribiert werden, legt die Existenz eines Promotorbereiches nahe, der dem proteinkodierender Gene ähnelt. Mit Hilfe von microRNA-Arrays konnten wir im linksventrikulären Myokard mehrere bei Herzinsuffizienz deutlich verändert exprimierte microRNAs identifizieren. Die microRNA-21 ist dabei bereits im Frühstadium der Herzinsuffizienz verstärkt exprimiert (Northern Blot). Auch in primären, kardialen Zellen (Fibroblasten, Kardiomyozyten) wird die microRNA-21 nach Induktion einer Hypertrophie verstärkt exprimiert. Weiterführendes Ziel dieser Arbeit war es nun, diejenigen Mechanismen aufzuklären, die der starken Induktion der microRNA-21 im erkrankten Myokard zu Grunde liegen. Durch bioinformatische Analyse des zugehörigen Promotorbereiches (Trans-Spezies-Konservierung) und Klonierung danach ausgerichteter Fragmente in Luciferase-basierte Reporter-Plasmide konnte ein 118 Basen langer Bereich identifiziert werden, der maßgeblich die Expression der microRNA-21 im Herzen bedingt. Durch Deaktivierung einzelner cis-Elemente konnte die kardiale Expression auf zwei essentielle Transkriptionsfaktorbindungsstellen zurückgeführt werden. Es handelt sich dabei um Erkennungssequenzen für die im Herz bedeutsamen Transkriptionsfaktoren CREB und SRF. Sie liegen in enger räumlicher Nachbarschaft ungefähr 1150 bp vor der Transkriptionsstartstelle. Die Suppression der Expression dieser beiden Transkriptionsfaktoren mittels geeigneter siRNAs führte jeweils zu einer signifikanten Aktivitätsminderung des microRNA-21-Promotors und konnte somit die vorangehenden Ergebnisse validieren. Durch Generierung einer transgenen Tierlinie, die lacZ unter der Kontrolle des microRNA-21-Promotors exprimiert, werden in naher Zukunft nähere Aufschlüsse über die gewebsspezifische Verteilung der microRNA-21-Expresssion in vivo möglich sein. Zusammenfassend beschreiben wir hier erstmals den Mechanismus der transkriptionellen Regulation der microRNA-21 im Herzen. Dieser Mechanismus bedingt wahrscheinlich die starke Induktion dieser microRNA bei kardialer Hypertrophie und Herzinsuffizienz.
Der Prozess von der Entdeckung und Entwicklung eines potentiellen Arzneistoffs bis zu dessen Zulassung ist extrem kosten‐ und zeitintensiv und eine Vielzahl dieser Stoffe kann aufgrund toxischer Nebenwirkungen in präklinischen Studien nicht weiterentwickelt werden. Dabei ist die Niere eines der Hauptziele von Xenobiotika‐induzierter Organtoxizität, jedoch ist eine frühe Detektion von Nierenschäden schwierig. Den derzeitig verwendeten klinischen Parameter, wie Blutharnstoff (BUN) und Serumkreatinin fehlt es an Sensitivität und Spezifität, da sie Fremdstoff‐induzierte Toxizität meist erst aufzeigen, wenn schon ein erheblicher Teil der Nierenfunktion beeinträchtigt ist. Daher ist es notwendig, empfindlichere und zuverlässigere Biomarker zu identifizieren und zu validieren, welche kleinste Nierenschädigungen früher als traditionelle Parameter erkennen. In den letzten Jahren wurden in der Literatur aber auch von verschiedenen Projekten eine Reihe neuer gen‐basierender und Urinbiomarker (Kim‐1, Clusterin, Lipocalin‐2, Timp‐1) identifiziert. Ziel dieser Dissertation war es die Aussagekraft dieser Marker im Vergleich zu traditionellen Endpunkten, einschließlich klinische Chemie und Histopathologie an Gewebe‐, Urin‐ und Serumproben von männlichen Ratten, welche mit Modellsubstanzen für Nephrotoxizität (Aristolochiasäure und Gentamicin) oder nephrotoxischen Arzneistoffkandidaten (PredTox Projekt) behandelt wurden, mittels qRT‐PCR, Immunhistochemie und ELISA zu untersuchen. Zusammenfassend kann man sagen, dass die Effekte auf Ebene der Gen‐ und Proteinexpression generell sehr gut mit den histopathologischen Veränderungen korrelieren. Sie konnten meist früher oder in niedrigeren Dosierungen als die traditionellen Nierenmarker BUN und Serumkreatinin detektiert werden. Eine erhöhte Expression und Exkretion von Kim‐1 zeigte sich in allen Studien als eine der frühesten Antworten auf Schädigung der proximalen Tubuli und stellt somit den empfindlichsten Biomarker dar. Die erhöhte Ausscheidung von Clusterin konnte teilweise vor einer veränderten Gen‐ und Proteinexpression im Gewebe detektiert werden und unterstützen die Verwendung von Clusterin als nicht‐invasiven Biomarker. Obwohl eine gesteigerte Exkretion von Lipocalin‐2 sehr früh nach Schädigung des proximalen Tubulus detektiert werden konnte, ist diese nicht spezifisch für einen Nierenschaden. Dennoch könnte die vermehrte Expression/Ausscheidung von Lipocalin‐2 als frühe Antwort auf eine Entzündung oder einen Gewebeschaden eine sinnvolle Ergänzung der routinemäßigen Testung auf Toxizität darstellen. Ebenfalls konnte ein dosis‐ und zeitabhängiger Konzentrationsanstieg von einem Großteil der potentiellen Biomarker des „WideScreen™ Rat Kidney Toxicity Panels 1 and 2“ im Urin beobachtet werden. Da jedoch die potentiellen Biomarker unterschiedliche Empfindlichkeiten besitzen und unter Umständen auch vom Mechanismus der Toxizität von Verbindungen abhängen, erscheint eine Kombination von verschiedenen Biomarkern zur frühzeitigen Erkennung von proximalen Nierenschäden sowie zur Verlaufskontrolle von Nierenerkrankungen sinnvoll. Durch die einfache Probenahme und leichte Bestimmung ist die Messung der neuen potentiellen Nierenbiomarker im Urin neben der Bestimmung der traditionellen Parameter der klinischen Chemie sowie der Histopathologie sinnvoll für die Identifizierung von Nierenschädigungen in präklinischen Studien.
Die Regulation des Tonus glatter Muskelzellen wird entscheidend von den beiden antagonistisch wirkenden second messengern cAMP und Ca2+ beeinflusst. Ein Ziel dieser Arbeit war herauszufinden, ob diese beiden Botenstoffe auch direkten Einfluss aufeinander haben können und welche Enzyme in diesem Fall an den Prozessen beteiligt sind. cAMP-Signale in intakten Zellen konnten wir in Echtzeit mit Hilfe des FRET-basierten cAMP-Sensors Epac1-camps beobachten; Ca2+-Signale durch Markieren der Zellen mit Fura-2. Anstiege der intrazellulären Ca2+-Konzentration in VSMCs wurden durch Aktivierung von endogen exprimierten, Gq-gekoppelten P2Y6-Rezeptoren mit Uridindiphosphat (UDP) ausgelöst. Durch eine zusätzliche in-vitro Kalibrierung des Epac1-camps konnten darüber hinaus absolute cAMP-Konzentrationen in einzelnen lebenden Zellen berechnet werden. Während ein Anstieg der Ca2+-Konzentration auf nicht vorstimulierte VSMCs keinen signifikante Einfluss auf die intrazellulären cAMP-Konzentrationen hatte, bewirkte die Aktivierung der purinergen Rezeptoren einen deutlichen Rückgang der intrazellulären cAMP-Konzentration in mit Isoproterenol vorstimulierten VSMCs. Dieser Effekt konnte sowohl durch die Komplexierung von Ca2+ mit BAPTA-AM als auch durch die Überexpression der Ca2+-insensitiven AC4 antagonisiert werden. Adenylatcyclase-Aktivitäts-Assays in VSMC-Membranen zeigten ebenfalls einen Rückgang der Cyclaseaktivität nach Zugabe von 2 und 5 μM freiem Ca2+. Die Hemmung der einzigen Ca2+-regulierbaren PDE1 mit dem selektiven PDE1-Inhibitor 8-Methoxymethyl-IBMX (8-MM-IBMX) hatte im Gegensatz dazu keinen Einfluss auf die durch UDP verursachte Änderung der cAMP-Konzentration in vorstimulierten VSMCs. Schließlich bewirkte die Herunterregulation der Ca2+-inhibierbaren AC5 und 6 mit siRNA einen signifikante Hemmung des durch UDP verursachten Effekts. Fasst man alle diese Ergebnisse zusammen, so lässt sich folgende Schlussfolgerung ziehen: Der durch purinerge Stimulation verursachte Rückgang der cAMP-Konzentration in mit Isoproterenol vorstimulierten VSMCs wird durch eine Hemmung der Ca2+-hemmbaren AC5 und 6 vermittelt. Dadurch sind zwei für die Regulation des Tonus wichtige Signalwege in VSMCs miteinander verbunden, die sich somit gegenseitig entscheidend beeinflussen können. Ein weiterer Bestandteil dieser Arbeit war die Entwicklung eines transgenen Mausmodells, das glattmuskelspezifisch den cAMP-Sensor Epac1-camps exprimiert. Mit Hilfe eines solchen Tiermodells könnten in Zukunft cAMP-Änderungen in intakten Geweben und vielleicht sogar in lebenden Tieren beobachtet werden. Durch Anwendung des Cre-loxP-Rekombinationssystems gelang es eine glatt¬muskelspezifische, für den Epac1-camps transgene Mauslinie zu generieren. Mit isolierten VSMCs dieser Tiere konnten bereits erste FRET-Messungen durchgeführt und agonistinduzierte cAMP-Änderungen beobachtet werden.
Neue Ansätze zur Entwicklung von Alternativmethoden zur Prüfung auf chronische Nierentoxizität
(2009)
Die Niere ist eines der wichtigsten Zielorgane für Toxizität, allerdings stellt die frühzeitige Erkennung einer Nierenschädigung und/oder kanzerogenen Wirkung infolge einer wiederholten Exposition gegenüber toxischen Verbindungen ein großes Problem dar, da traditionelle Marker für Nierenfunktionsstörungen wenig empfindlich sind. Daher ist es notwendig, verbesserte Testmethoden (Alternativmethoden) zur Prüfung auf chronische Nierentoxizität zu entwickeln. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es daher, mögliche Alternativmethoden zur Prüfung auf Nephrotoxizität nach wiederholter Exposition zu untersuchen. Zum einen wurden dazu in einem in vivo-Modell für chronische Nierentoxizität neue Biomarker für Stress und Gewebeschädigung untersucht, deren erhöhte Genexpression in mehreren Modellen für akute Schädigung des Nierengewebes gezeigt wurde, einschließlich kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1), Lipocalin-2 (LCN2), Clusterin (CLU), Osteopontin (OPN), tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 (TIMP-1), Vimentin (VIM) und Hämoxygenase-1 (HO-1). Diese Marker wurden nachfolgend auch in einem zellkulturbasierten in vitro-Modell untersucht. Ein weiterer Teil der Arbeit befasste sich mit Veränderungen der Zellteilung als möglicher Marker für die Früherkennung kanzerogener Effekte. Das in vivo-Modell bestand in einer Studie in männlichen F344/N-Ratten, die 14, 28 oder 90 Tage oral mit 0, 21, 70 oder 210 µg/kg Körpergewicht (KG) Ochratoxin A (OTA) behandelt wurden. OTA ist ein Mykotoxin, das in Ratten bei wiederholter Gabe eine Nierenschädigung und Nierenkrebs verursacht. Die Analyse der mRNA-Expression der neuen Biomarker in Nierengewebe zeigte bei Tieren, die mit 70 oder 210 µg/kg KG behandelt wurden, eine frühzeitige, zeit- und dosisabhängige Induktion von KIM-1, LCN2, TIMP-1, OPN und CLU, die mit histopathologischen Veränderungen in Form von Zelldegeneration und Regeneration einherging und das Fortschreiten der Schädigung gut widerspiegelte. Auch die mRNA-Expression von HO 1 und VIM wurde durch OTA moduliert, allerdings war eine Erhöhung nicht zu allen Zeitpunkten zu messen bzw. trat nicht so früh auf wie bei den anderen Markern. Effekte auf traditionelle Marker für Nephrotoxizität (Serum-Kreatinin, N-Acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase und γ-Glutamyltransferase im Urin) wurden im Vergleich zu den neuen Markern zu einem späteren Zeitpunkt und zumeist nur in der Hochdosisgruppe festgestellt. Zusätzlich zu den Effekten auf die Genexpression konnte in den Zielzellen von OTA im proximalen Tubulusepithel eine erhöhte Proteinexpression von KIM-1, CLU, OPN und VIM gezeigt werden; nur für KIM-1 wurde allerdings auch im Urin eine erhöhte Konzentration nachgewiesen, die mit den Effekten auf die mRNA- und Proteinkonzentration im Gewebe korrelierte. Damit stellt KIM-1 in dieser Studie hinsichtlich Empfindlichkeit und Messbarkeit den empfindlichsten Biomarker für Nephrotoxizität dar. Die Untersuchung der Zellteilung nach wiederholter Gabe von OTA zeigte einen dramatischen, zeit- und dosisabhängigen Anstieg der Proliferation von proximalen Tubulusepithelzellen in Nieren von Tieren, die mit 70 oder 210 µg/kg KG behandelt wurden. Dagegen wurden nach wiederholter Exposition gegenüber 21 µg/kg KG über 90 Tage keine OTA-abhängigen Effekte auf die renale Zellproliferation festgestellt. Somit korrelieren die Veränderungen der Zellteilung in der Niere in der 90-Tages-Studie sehr gut mit dem Ergebnis der 2-Jahres-Kanzerogenitätsstudie mit OTA, in der Nierentumoren nur nach Behandlung mit 70 oder 210 µg/kg KG auftraten. Ausgehend von den verschiedenen Endpunkten für Toxizität, die in der Studie untersucht wurden, liegt der no-observed-adverse-effect-level (NOAEL) bei 21 µg/kg KG OTA. Dies entspricht dem NOAEL der 2-Jahres-Kanzerogenitätsstudie. In einem weiteren Teil der Arbeit wurden die neuen in vivo-Biomarker für Nephrotoxizität in NRK 52E-Zellen als in vitro-Modell ausgetestet. Allerdings konnte eine erhöhte mRNA-Expression von KIM-1, einem sensitiven Marker in vivo, nach 24 oder 48 Stunden Behandlung mit verschiedenen nephrotoxischen Modellverbindungen (OTA, Kaliumbromat (KBrO3), Cisplatin oder Cadmiumchlorid (CdCl2)) in den Zellen nicht nachgewiesen werden. Die mRNA-Expression anderer Marker (VIM, CLU, TIMP-1, LCN2, OPN) war dagegen in unbehandelten Zellen bereits so hoch, dass die Behandlung mit Nephrotoxinen zu keiner weiteren Induktion führte. Allein die Gen- und Proteinexpression von HO-1 wurde durch CdCl2, KBrO3 und OTA induziert und könnte daher einen potentiellen Marker für screening-Studien in vitro darstellen. Insgesamt war der Nachweis zytotoxischer Wirkungen jedoch der empfindlichste Endpunkt in der Zellkultur. Die Ergebnisse stützen somit die Verwendung der neuen in vivo-Biomarker als gewebespezifische Marker für Nephrotoxizität in vitro nicht.
Der Parathormonrezeptor Typ 1 (PTHR) ist ein G-Protein-gekoppelter Rezeptor der Gruppe 2 und wichtigster Regulator des Kalziumstoffwechsels. Im ersten Teil der Arbeit wurde eine neuartige posttranslationale Modifikation des PTHR in Form einer proteolytischen Spaltung der Ektodomäne identifiziert, charakterisiert und deren Regulation beschrieben. Nach langanhaltender Stimulation des Rezeptors mit Agonisten – aber nicht mit Antagonisten – wurde eine Massen- und Mengenzunahme des Rezeptorproteins beobachtet. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass der Rezeptor unter basalen Bedingungen einer Spaltung unterliegt. Der Massenunterschied entsteht durch die proteolytische Spaltung der Ektodomäne des PTHR, was nachfolgend die Stabilität des Rezeptors beeinträchtigt. Die Spaltung erfolgte innerhalb einer unstrukturierten Schleife der Ektodomäne, welche die Bereiche für die Ligandenbindung miteinander verbindet. Hierbei handelt es sich um eine Region, die im Vergleich zu anderen Gruppe 2-Rezeptoren spezifisch für den PTHR ist. Das durch die Spaltung entstandene N-terminale Fragment bleibt durch eine Disulfidbrücke mit dem Transmembranteil des Rezeptors verbunden. Durch Versuche mit verschiedenen Proteaseinhibitoren konnte die verantwortliche Protease der Familie der zinkabhängigen extrazellulären Proteasen zugeordnet werden. Diese Ergebnisse beschreiben einen Mechanismus wie die Homoöstase des PTHR reguliert sein könnte. In einem zweiten Abschnitt wurde die Interaktion der Adapterproteine NHERF1 und beta-Arrestin2 mit dem PTHR untersucht. Beide Proteine interagierten unabhängig mit dem Rezeptor, wobei NHERF1 über eine PDZ-Domäne konstitutiv an den C-Terminus des Rezeptors bindet. beta-Arrestin2 hingegen bindet nach Aktivierung des Rezeptors und führt zur Desensitisierung des Rezeptors. Mittels biochemischer und mikroskopischer Methoden konnte gezeigt werden, dass beide Proteine gemeinsam einen ternären Komplex mit dem PTHR bilden, welcher durch die direkte Interaktion zwischen NHERF1 und beta-Arrestin2 vermittelt wird. Dies hat zur Folge, dass beta-Arrestin im basalen Zustand durch NHERF1 an den Rezeptor gekoppelt wird. Durch Analyse der Assoziationskinetik mittels Fluoreszenz-Resonanz-Energietransfer-Messungen zeigte sich, dass diese Kopplung zu einer zweifach erhöhten Rekrutierungsgeschwindigkeit von beta-Arrestin2 an den PTHR führt. Somit stellt unterstützt NHERF1 die beta-Arrestin2-vermittelte Desensitisierung des PTHR.
Es gibt viele Hinweise, dass G-Protein-gekoppelte Rezeptoren bei ihrer Aktivierung durch einen Agonisten ligandenselektive Konformationen eingehen. Ein tatsächlichen Beleg hierfür konnte bisher in lebenden Zellen noch nicht erbracht werden. Zu diesem Zweck wurde in dieser Arbeit ein Fluoreszenz-Resonanz-Energie-Transfer (FRET)-basierter Ansatz gewählt, um ligandenselektive Konformationen in der dritten intrazellulären Schleife des α2a-adrenergen Rezeptors (α2a-AR) in lebenden Zellen darzustellen. Dazu wurden Rezeptorsensoren erstellt, welche jeweils ein CFP am Ende des C-Terminus trugen und in der dritten intrazellulären Schleife an verschiedenen Stellen mit einem Tetracysteinmotiv versehen wurden. Drei Konstrukte wurden verglichen, die das Tetracysteinmotiv N-terminal in der Nähe der Transmembrandomäne V (I3-N), in der Mitte der dritten intrazellulären Schleife (I3-M) beziehungsweise C-terminal in der Nähe der Transmembrandomäne VI (I3-C) trugen. Die drei Rezeptorsensoren unterschieden sich hinsichtlich ihrer Ligandenbindung sowie ihrer G-Proteinaktivierung nicht vom Wildtyp α2a-AR. Durch das Tetracysteinmotiv ist es möglich, den Rezeptor spezifisch mit dem niedermolekularen Fluorophor FlAsH (fluorescein arsenical hairpin binder) zu markieren, welcher als Akzeptor für den Donor CFP in FRET-Experimenten dient. Die Änderung des FRET-Signals zwischen den beiden Fluorophoren, das durch den vollen Agonist Norepinephrin ausgelöst wurde, war bei allen drei Rezeptorsensoren vergleichbar. Der starke partielle Agonist Clonidin war ebenfalls in der Lage, in allen drei Konstrukten ein ähnliches FRET-Signal hervorzurufen. Dagegen zeigte der partielle Agonist Dopamin an dem Konstrukt I3-N ein signifikant schwächeres Signal, als an I3-C. Die schwachen partiellen Agonisten Octopamin und Norphenephrin konnten an den Konstrukten I3-N und I3-M keine Änderung des FRET-Signals bewirken, wobei an I3-C eine deutliche Signaländerung detektiert wurde. Dies legt nahe, dass die Transmembrandomäne V bei der Aktivierung des Rezeptors eine kleinere Bewegung eingeht als die Transmembrandomäne VI, und bestätigt damit ein auf Röntgenstrukturanlysen basierendes Modell der Rezeptorbewegung. Außerdem wurden die Aktivierungskinetiken für die Agonisten Norepinephrin und Dopamin verglichen. Hierbei konnte gezeigt werden, dass die durch Norepinephrin ausgelöste Bewegung an allen beobachteten Punkten gleich schnell war. Im Gegensatz dazu aktivierte Dopamin I3-C und I3-M ca. 1,5-mal langsamer, als Norepinephrin. Für das I3-N Konstrukt wurde sogar eine 3-mal langsamere Aktivierung gemessen. Diese Daten zeigen, dass unterschiedliche Agonisten in der dritten intrazellulären Schleife spezifische Konformationen auslösen können. Die Untersuchungen zur Rezeptorbewegung im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit wurde mit dem kleinen Fluorophor FlAsH in Kombination mit einer großen GFP-Variante durchgeführt. Im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit wurde eine Methode entwickelt, bei der es möglich ist Proteine spezifisch mit beiden kleinen Fluorophoren FlAsH und ReAsH in einer lebenden Zelle zu markieren. Hierfür wurden zwei Tetracysteinmotive, CCPGCC und FLNCCPGCCMEP, gewählt, an die beide kleine Fluorophore kovalent binden. Durch Verdrängungsexperimente mit BAL konnte gezeigt werden, dass FlAsH für beide Motive eine dreifach höhere Affinität besitzt, als ReAsH. Dabei besitzt das FLNCCPGCCMEP-Motiv jedoch eine dreifach höhere Affinität zu dem jeweiligen Fluorophor besitzt als CCPGCC. Durch Ausnutzung dieser Affinitätsunterschiede konnte ein Protokoll entwickelt werden, mit dem es möglich ist, beide Motive in einer Zelle zu markieren. Dabei werden zunächst beide Motive mit ReAsH markiert. Durch anschließendes Waschen mit einer geeigneten Konzentration von BAL wird das ReAsH ausschließlich von der CCPGCC-Sequenz verdrängt, wohingegen die FLNCCPGCCMEP-Sequenz mit ReAsH markiert bleibt. Die nun unbesetzte CCPGCC-Sequenz kann dann anschließend mit FlAsH markiert werden, ohne dabei die Bindung des ReAsH an die FLNCCPGCCMEP-Sequenz zu beeinflussen. Um die Funktionalität dieses Protokolls zu überprüfen, sollten zwei verschiedene Proteine mit unterschiedlicher subzellulärer Lokalisation in einer lebenden Zelle spezifisch mit jeweils einem kleinen Fluorophor markiert werden. Hierzu wurden ein PTH-Rezeptor, in dem im C-Terminus die FLNCCPGCCMEP-Sequenz eingebracht wurde, mit ReAsH und ein β-Arrestin-2, dem die CCPGCC-Sequenz eingebracht wurde, in Zellen co-exprimiert und gemäß dem Protokoll mit FlAsH und ReAsH markiert. Beide Proteine konnten spezifisch markiert werden, wobei der mit ReAsH markierte PTH-Rezeptor eine deutliche Lokalisation in der Zellmembran zeigte. Durch sequentielle Exzitation konnte in der gleichen Zelle das zytosolisch lokalisierte, mit FlAsH markierte β-Arrestin-2 detektiert werden. Wurden die so markierten Zellen mir 1 µM PTH stimuliert, wurde das FlAsH-markierte β-Arrestin-2 an die Zellmembran rekrutiert. Somit konnte durch die Entwicklung dieses Protokolls eine duale spezifische Markierung von Proteinen mit zwei kleinen Fluorophoren zu innerhalb einer Zelle erreicht werden.
Das Endothel bildet eine einschichtige Zellbarriere zwischen Blut und interstitiellem Gewebe, deren Durchlässigkeit entscheidend durch die sekundären Botenstoffe Ca2+ und cAMP reguliert wird. Während Ca2+ durch eine verstärkte Kontraktion der Endothelzellen die Permeabilität erhöht, fördert cAMP die Adhäsion der Zellen und unterstützt somit die Barrierefunktion. Es ist bekannt, dass Thrombin durch einen Anstieg der intrazellulären Ca2+-Konzentration und vermutlich auch durch eine Hemmung der cAMP-Konzentration zu einer Permeabilitätserhöhung führt. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, Thrombin-induzierte Änderungen der cAMP-Konzentration in Echtzeit in lebenden Endothelzellen mittels Fluorescence-Resonance-Energy-Transfer (FRET) zu untersuchen. Hierfür wurden Human-Umbilical-Vein-Endothelial-Cells (HUVECs) mit dem FRET-basierten cAMP-Sensor Epac1-camps transfiziert. Die Bindung von cAMP an Epac1-camps führt zu einer Konformationsänderung des Sensors und damit zu einer Abschwächung des FRET. Mit Hilfe dieses Sensors kann die cAMP-Konzentration mit hoher zeitlicher Auflösung in einzelnen lebenden Zellen gemessen werden. Untersucht wurde der Effekt von Thrombin auf die cAMP-Konzentration in Endothelzellen, deren cAMP-Konzentration durch Stimulierung endogener β-Rezeptoren erhöht war. Thrombin erniedrigte Ca2+-abhängig die cAMP-Konzentration um ca. 30 %. Dieser Abfall der cAMP-Konzentration folgte zeitlich verzögert dem Thrombin-induzierten Ca2+-Signal. Die cAMP-Konzentration erreichte ca. 30 s nach der Thrombinzugabe ein Minimum und stieg danach wieder an. Durch die Herunterregulierung der durch Ca2+ direkt inhibierten Adenylatzyklase 6 (AC6) mittels siRNA wurde die Thrombin-induzierte Abnahme der cAMP-Konzentration vollständig aufgehoben. Dies bestätigte, dass Thrombin durch die Ca2+-vermittelte Inhibierung der AC6 eine Abnahme der cAMP-Konzentration verursacht. Ohne β-adrenerge Stimulation führte die Applikation von Thrombin zu einem langsamen Anstieg der cAMP-Konzentration, der mehrere Minuten anhielt. Dieser cAMP-Konzentrationsanstieg beruhte auf der Ca2+-abhängigen Aktivierung der Phospholipase A2 (PLA2). Diese setzt Arachidonsäure aus Membranphospholipiden frei, die als Substrat für die Synthese verschiedener Prostaglandine dient. Durch die pharmakologische Beeinflussung von Zyklooxygenasen und Prostazyklinrezeptoren konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Synthese von Prostazyklin und die anschließende Stimulation Gs-gekoppelter Prostazyklinrezeptoren zum Thrombin-induzierten Anstieg der cAMP-Konzentration führte. Da die Physiologie der Endothelzellen im Gefäß stark von Faktoren aus der unmittelbaren Umgebung beeinflusst wird, ist die Messung der Änderungen der cAMP-Konzentration in Endothelzellen, die sich innerhalb eines Gewebes befinden, von sehr großer Bedeutung. Deshalb war die Generierung transgener Mäuse mit einer gewebespezifischen Expression des FRET-Sensors Epac1-camps in Endothelzellen ein weiteres Ziel dieser Arbeit. Durch Anwendung eines Cre-Rekombinase/loxP-Ansatzes konnten transgene Mäuse generiert werden, die Epac1-camps spezifisch in Endothelzellen exprimierten. An isolierten pulmonären Endothelzellen konnte die Funktionalität des transgen exprimierten Sensors Epac1-camps nachgewiesen werden. Die Echtzeitmessung der Thrombin-induzierten Änderungen der cAMP-Konzentration verdeutlichte ein zeitlich sehr komplexes Wechselspiel zwischen Ca2+- und cAMP-Signalen, das die Barrierefunktion des Endothels maßgeblich beeinflussen wird. Die transgene Expression von Epac1-camps in Endothelzellen ermöglicht in Zukunft die Untersuchung der Thrombin-verursachten Änderungen der cAMP-Konzentration und der Permeabilität innerhalb eines intakten Gefäßes.
trans-1,1,1,3-Tetrafluoropropene (HFO-1234ze) and 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene (HFO-1234yf) are non-ozone-depleting fluorocarbon replacements with low global warming potentials and short atmospheric lifetimes. They are developed as foam blowing agent and refrigerant, respectively. Investigations on biotransformation in different test species and in vitro systems are required to assess possible health risks of human exposure and needed for commercial development. The biotransformation of HFO-1234ze and HFO-1234yf was therefore investigated after inhalation exposure. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to air containing 2 000; 10,000; or 50,000 ppm (n=5/concentration) HFO-1234ze or HFO-1234yf. Male B6C3F1 mice were only exposed to 50,000 ppm HFO-1234ze or HFO-1234yf. Due to lethality observed in a developmental study with rabbits after exposure to high concentrations of HFO-1234yf, the metabolic fate of the compound was tested by whole body inhalation exposure of female New Zealand White rabbits to air containing 2 000; 10,000; or 50,000 ppm (n=3/concentration) HFO-1234yf. All inhalation exposures were conducted for 6 h in a dynamic exposure chamber. After the end of the exposures, animals were individually housed in metabolic cages and urines were collected at 6 or 12 h intervals for 48 h (rats and mice) or 60 h (rabbits). For metabolite identification, urine samples were analyzed by 1H-coupled and 1H-decoupled 19F-NMR and by LC/MS-MS or GC/MS. Metabolites were identified by 19F-NMR chemical shifts, signal multiplicity, 1H-19F coupling constants and by comparison with synthetic reference compounds. Biotransformation of HFO-1234ze in rats exposed to 50,000 ppm yielded S-(3,3,3-trifluoro-trans-propenyl)mercaptolactic acid as the predominant metabolite which accounted for 66% of all integrated 19F-NMR signals in urines. No 19F-NMR signals were found in spectra of rat urine samples collected after inhalation exposure to 2 000 or 10,000 ppm HFO-1234ze likely due to insufficient sensitivity. S-(3,3,3-Trifluoro-trans-propenyl)-L-cysteine, N-acetyl-S-(3,3,3-trifluoro-trans-propenyl)-L-cysteine, 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid and 3,3,3-trifluorolactic acid were also present as metabolites in urine samples of rats and mice at the 50,000 ppm level. A presumed amino acid conjugate of 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid was the major metabolite of HFO-1234ze in urine samples of mice exposed to 50,000 ppm and related to 18% of total integrated 19F-NMR signals. Quantitation of three metabolites in urines of rats and mice was performed, using LC/MS-MS or GC/MS. The quantified amounts of the metabolites excreted with urine in both mice and rats, suggest only a low extent (<<1% of dose received) of biotransformation of HFO-1234ze and 95% of all metabolites were excreted within 18 h after the end of the exposures (t1/2 approx. 6 h). Due to its low boiling point of −22 °C, most of the inhaled HFO-1234ze is expected to be readily exhaled. Moreover, steric and electronic factors may decrease the reactivity of the parent compound with soft nucleophiles such as glutathione. The obtained results suggest that HFO-1234ze is subjected to an addition-elimination reaction with glutathione and to a cytochrome P450-mediated epoxidation at low rates. The extent of a direct addition reaction of HFO-1234ze with glutathione is negligible, compared to that of the observed addition-elimination reaction. The results of in vivo testing of HFO-1234ze could not be supported by in vitro investigations, since HFO-1234ze was not metabolized in incubations with either liver microsomes or subcellular fractions from rat and human. Regarding the structures delineated in the biotransformation scheme of HFO-1234ze, 1,1,1,3-tetrafluoroepoxypropane and 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid are toxic intermediates which, however, are not supposed to display toxicity in the species after exposure to HFO-1234ze, due to the low extent of formation and an efficient detoxification of the epoxide by hydrolysis and glutathione conjugation. The findings of biotransformation of HFO-1234ze in rats and mice correlate with the absence of adverse effects in the toxicity testings and indicate their innocuousness to a human exposure. Biotransformation of HFO-1234yf yielded N-acetyl-S-(3,3,3-trifluoro-2-hydroxypropanyl)-L-cysteine as predominat metabolite which accounted for approx. 44, 90 and 32% (50,000 ppm) of total 19F-NMR signal intensities in urine samples from rabbits, rats and mice, respectively. S-(3,3,3-Trifluoro-2-hydroxypropanyl)mercaptolactic acid and the sulfoxides of mercapturic acid and mercaptolactic acid S-conjugate were identified as minor metabolites of HFO-1234yf in urine samples from rabbits, rats and mice, whereas trifluoroacetic acid, 3,3,3-trifluorolactic acid and 3,3,3-trifluoro-1-hydroxyacetone were present as minor metabolites only in urine samples from rats and mice. The absence of these metabolites in rabbit urine samples...
Evaluation of 1H-NMR and GC/MS-based metabonomics for the assessment of liver and kidney toxicity
(2009)
For the assessment of metabonomics techniques for the early, non-invasive detection of toxicity, the nephrotoxins gentamicin (s.c. administration of 0, 60 and 120 mg/kg bw 2x daily for 8 days), ochratoxin A (p.o. administration of 0, 21, 70 and 210 µg/kg bw 5 days/week for 90 days) and aristolochic acid (p.o. administration of 0, 0.1, 1.0 and 10 mg/kg bw for 12 days) were administered to rats and urine samples were analyzed with 1H-NMR and GC/MS. Urine samples from the InnoMed PredTox project were analyzed as well, thereby focusing on 1H-NMR analysis and bile duct necrosis as histopathological endpoint. 1H-NMR analysis used water supression with the following protocol: 1 M phosphate buffer, D2O as shift lock reagent, D4-trimethylsilylpropionic acid as chemical shift reference, noesygppr1d pulse sequence (Bruker). For multivariate data analysis, spectral intensity was binned into 0.04 ppm wide bins. GC/MS analysis of urine was carried out after protein precipitation with methanol, drying, derivatization with methoxyamine hydrochloride in pyridine and with methyl(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide on a DB5-MS column using EI ionization. The chromatograms were prepared for multivariate data analysis using the R-program based peak picking and alignment software XCMS version 2.4.0. Principal component analysis (PCA) to detect and visualize time-point and dose-dependent differences between treated animals and controls and orthogonal projection to latent structures discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) for identification of potential molecular markers of toxicity was carried out using SIMCA P+ 11.5 1H-NMR-based markers were identified and quantified with the Chenomx NMR Suite, GC/MS based markers were identified using the NIST Mass Spectral Database and by co-elution with authentic reference standards. PCA of urinary metabolite profiles was able to differentiate treated animals from controls at the same time as histopathology. An advantage over classical clinical chemistry parameters regarding sensitivity could be observed in some cases. Metabonomic analysis with GC/MS and 1H-NMR revealed alterations in the urinary profile of treated animals 1 day after start of treatment with gentamicin, correlating with changes in clinical chemistry parameters and histopathology. Decreased urinary excretion of citrate, 2-oxoglutarate, hippurate, trigonelline and 3-indoxylsulfate increased excretion of 5-oxoproline, lactate, alanine and glucose were observed. Ochratoxin A treatment caused decreased excretion of citrate, 2-oxoglutarate and hippurate and and increased excretion of glucose, myo-inositol, N,N-dimethylglycine, glycine, alanine and lactate as early as 2 weeks after start of treatment with 210µg OTA/kg bw, correlating with changes in clinical chemistry parameters and histopathology. Integration of histopathology scores increased confidence in the molecular markers discovered. Aristolochic acid treatment resulted in decreased urinary excretion of citrate, 2-oxoglutarate, hippurate and creatinine as well as increased excretion of 5-oxoproline, N,N-dimethylglycine, pseudouridine and uric acid. No alterations in clinical chemistry parameters or histopathology were noted.Decreased excretion of hippurate indicates alterations in the gut microflora, an effect that is expected as pharmacological action of the aminoglycoside antibiotic gentamicin and that can also be explained by the p.o. administration of xenobiotica. Decreased Krebs cycle intermediates (citrate and 2-oxoglutarate) and increased lactate is associated with altered energy metabolism. Increased pseudouridine excretion is associated with cell proliferation and was observed with aristolochic acid and ochratoxin A, for which proliferative processes were observed with histopathology. 5-oxoproline and N,N-dimethylglycine can be associated with oxidative stress. Glucose, a marker of renal damage in clinical chemistry, was observed for all three nephrotoxins studied. Single study analysis with PCA of GC/MS chromatograms and 1H-NMR spectra of urine from 3 studies conducted within the InnoMed PredTox project showing bile duct necrosis revealed alterations in urinary profiles with the onset of changes in clinical chemistry and histopathology. Alterations were mainly decreased Krebs cycle intermediates and changes in the aromatic gut flora metabolites, an effect that may result as a secondary effect from altered bile flow. In conclusion, metabonomics techniques are able to detect toxic lesions at the same time as histopathology and clinical chemistry. The metabolites found to be altered are common to most toxicities and are not organ-specific. A mechanistic link to the observed toxicity has to be established in order to avoid confounders such as body weight loss, pharmacological effects etc. For pattern recognition purposes, large databases are necessary.
G-Protein-gekoppelte einwärtsgleichrichtende Kalium-Kanäle sind durch zwei Eigenschaften gekennzeichnet: (I) Die Leitfähigkeit für K+-Ionen ist positiv des Kalium-Gleichgewichtspotentials reduziert und (II) die Kanal-Aktivität wird durch Bindung von G betagamma-Dimere heterotrimerer Gi/o-Proteine reguliert. In der Literatur wurde die Aktivierung von GIRK-Kanälen als eine Zunahme ihrer Offenwahrscheinlichkeit unabhängig vom Membranpotential beschrieben. Die vorliegenden Untersuchungen zeigten, dass es bei starker Aktivierung des GIRK-Kanals durch G betagamma-Dimere auch zu einer Abschwächung der Einwärtsgleichrichtung kommt. Im heterologen Expressionssystem konnte bei Rezeptor-Stimulation mit Agonist die Einwärtsgleichrichtung von GIRK-Kanälen abhängig von der Stärke der Koexpression von G betagamma-Dimeren geschwächt werden. Dieser Effekt entstand nicht durch eine Veränderung der Affinität, mit der Polyamine und Mg2+-Ionen den GIRK-Kanal membranpotentialabhängig blockieren. Die Kinetik, mit der Polyamine den GIRK-Kanal blockieren, war nicht verändert; eine Erhöhung der intrazellulären Mg2+-Konzentration um den Faktor 20 konnte eine Abschwächung der Einwärtsgleichrichtung nicht mindern. Es wurde vermutet, dass eine Änderung der Konformation von Strukturen nahe des Selektivitätsfilters die Abschwächung der Einwärtsgleichrichtung verursacht. Gestützt wurde diese Vermutung zum einen dadurch, dass Ba2+- und Cs+-Ionen, die von extrazellulärer Seite her den Kanal an Strukturen nahe des Selektivitätsfilters blockieren können, unter schwach einwärtsgleichrichtenden Bedingungen eine geringere Bindungsaffinität hatten und zum anderen dadurch, dass das relative Ausmaß des GIRK-Kanal-Blocks durch Cs+-Ionen mit der Stärke der Einwärtsgleichrichtung korrelierte.
Phosducin-like Protein existiert in zwei Splicevarianten: PhLPLONG (PhLPL) und PhLPSHORT (PhLPS). Sie unterscheiden sich in der Länge ihres N-Terminus und in ihrem Expressionsmusters: Die lange Form (PhLPL) wird ubiquitär exprimiert und bindet G-Protein-betagamma-Untereinheiten (Gbetagama), was zur Hemmung von Gbetagamma-abhängigen Funktionen führt. Der um 83 Aminosäuren verlängerte N-Terminus besitzt ein hoch konserviertes Motiv, welches für die Gbetagamma-Bindung und Regulation von entscheidender Bedeutung ist. Im Gegensatz hierzu besitzt die kurzen Spliceform PhLPS, deren Expression in verschiedenen Gewebetypen deutlich geringer ist, diese hoch konservierte Region nicht. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde nun erstmals die Rolle von PhLPL und PhLPS bei der Gbetagamma-Regulation in intakten Zellen untersucht. Hierbei konnte überraschenderweise gefunden werden, dass PhLPS der potentere und effizientere Regulator für Gbetagamma-abhängige Signale war. PhLPL hingegen schien in seiner Gbetagamma-regulierenden Fähigkeit limitiert zu werden. Die Ursache dieser Limitierung von PhLPL in intakten Zellen wurde auf eine konstitutive Phosphorylierung seines verlängerten N-Terminus durch die ubiquitäre Casein Kinase 2 (CK2) zurückgeführt. Die verantwortlichen Phosphorylierungsstellen (S18, T19, S20) wurde identifiziert und die Mutation der CK2-Phosphorylierungsstellen (PhLPLA18-20) führte zu einer Verbesserung der hemmenden Funktion von PhLPL in Zellen. In vitro-Assays zur Bindungsfähigkeit von rekombinantem PhLPL (vor und nach CK2-Phosphorylierung) zeigten allerdings: die Phosphorylierung beeinflusste die Affinität nicht. Eine genaue Analyse der N-terminalen Strukuren von PhLPL zeigte indes, dass die Regulationsfähigkeit von PhLPL in intakten Zellen vor allem in dem konservierten Gbetagamma-Bindungsmotiv zu suchen war. Die Mutation einer einzigen Aminosäure (W66V) war ausreichend, um sowohl die Gbetagamma-Bindungsfähigkeit, als auch die Fähigkeit zur funktionellen Hemmung in intakten Zellen zu verlieren. Was war also der Mechanismus der Hemmung von Gbetagamma durch PhLPS und die phophorylierungsdefiziente Mutante von PhLPL? Ein erster Hinweis hierauf kam von der Beobachtung, dass die Gbeta- und Ggamma-Untereinheiten in Anwesenheit von PhLPS in ihrem Proteingehalt deutlich reduziert vorlagen (wie in Western Blots gezeigt). Dieser Mechanismus schien von proteasomalen Abbauwegen abzuhängen (gezeigt durch Effekte des spezifischen Proteasominhibitors Lactazystin). Allerdings schien eine Stabilisierung der Gbeta- und Ggamma-Untereinheiten (durch N-terminale Fusion mit einem Protein zur vitalen Proteinfärbung) nicht die Funktionsfähigkeit von Gbetagamma in Anwesenheit von PhLPS bewahren zu können. Ganz im Gegenteil, es wurde gezeigt, dass Gbeta und Ggamma hierbei nicht mehr zu einem funktionellen Dimer assoziierten. Dies war ein Hinweis darauf, dass möglicherweise Proteinfaltungsmechanismen bei der Regulation essentiell sein könnten. Eine postulierte Rolle bei der Faltung von WD40-Repeatproteinen wie der Gbeta-Untereinheit wurde dem Chaperonin-Komplex CCT (chaperonin containing TCP) zugedacht. Folgerichtig konnte PhLPS mit seinen funktionell aktiven Domänen an endogenes TCP-1alpha (einer Untereinheit von CCT) binden. Ferner konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Hemmung des CCT-Komplexes durch RNA-Interferenz mit TCP-1alpha ebenso wie PhLPS zur spezifischen Reduktion von Gbetagamma führte. In dieser Arbeit wurde also ein neuartiger Mechanismus der G-Protein-Regulation durch Hemmung der Proteinfaltung von Gbetagamma beschrieben. Ein Schaltmechanismus zwischen direkter Gbetagamma-Bindung (induziert durch CK2-Phosphorylierung von PhLPL) und Hemmung der Proteinfaltung von Gbetagamma (induziert durch alternatives Splicen oder durch Dephosphorylierung von PhLP) wird postuliert.
Viele Membranrezeptoren liegen als über Disulfidbrücken-verbundene Dimere vor. Ein Nachweis der Dimerisierung ist in diesen Fällen methodisch klar und einfach zu erbringen. Für die meisten G-Protein-gekoppelten Rezeptoren dagegen ist weder die Existenz von Di- oder Oligomeren noch deren Funktion eindeutig belegt. Meist wurden Methoden wie Coimmunopräzipitation und Resonanz-Energie-Transfer-Verfahren wie BRET oder FRET verwendet, um Protein-Protein-Interaktionen zu untersuchen. Trotz ihrer hohen Sensitivität besitzen diese Methoden einige Grenzen und können je nach experimentellem Ansatz und Verwendung verschiedener Kontrollen, unterschiedliche Ergebnisse hinsichtlich des Vorliegens einer Protein-Protein-Interaktion liefern. Weder die Stabilität der Interaktion, noch die Fraktion der interagierenden Proteine kann mittels Resonanz-Energie-Transfer-Assays zuverlässig ermittelt werden. Auch die Größe der Komplexe ist nicht oder nur technisch aufwendig bestimmbar. Deshalb wurde in dieser Arbeit eine neue, unabhängige Methode entwickelt, um Rezeptor-Rezeptor-Interaktionen in lebenden Zellen genauer untersuchen zu können. Diese auf „Fluorescence Recovery after Photobleaching“ basierende Mikroskopie-Methode erlaubt die Mobilität von Proteinen zu bestimmen. Um Homointeraktionen zwischen Proteinen messen zu können, müssen zwei Protein-Fraktionen mit unterschiedlicher Mobilität vorliegen. Deshalb wurde eine Rezeptor-Fraktion extrazellulär mit YFP markiert und mit Hilfe polyklonaler Antikörper gegen YFP spezifisch immobilisiert. Die andere Rezeptorfraktion wurde intrazellulär mit CFP oder Cerulean markiert und wurde deshalb nicht von extrazellulären Antikörpern erkannt. So konnten mittels Zwei-Farben-FRAP potenzielle Interaktionen zwischen den immobilisierten extrazellulär-markierten Rezeptoren und den intrazellulär-markierten Rezeptoren durch eine Mobilitätsänderung letzterer detektiert werden. Diese Methode wurde mittels eines monomeren (CD86) und kovalent dimeren (CD28) Rezeptors validiert. Es zeigte sich, dass eine spezifische Immobilisierung extrazellulär-markierter Proteine nur durch polyklonale, nicht aber durch monoklonale Antikörper gegen YFP erreicht werden konnte. Intrazellulär-markierte Proteine wurden hierbei in ihrer Mobilität nicht durch die extrazellulären Antikörper beeinflusst. Bei Immobilisierung des extrazellulär-markierten CD86 war das coexprimierte, intrazellulär-markierte CD86-CFP weiterhin voll mobil. Außerdem zeigte das Monomer CD86 eine vom relativen CFP-YFP-Expressionsverhältnis unabhängige Mobilität. Dieses Ergebnis ließ den Schluss zu, dass extra- und intrazellulär-markiertes CD86 nicht miteinander interagieren und als Monomer vorliegen. Die Mobilität des kovalenten Dimers CD28 war dagegen abhängig vom CFP–YFP-Expressionsverhältnis und stimmte gut mit theoretisch erwarteten Werten für ein Dimer überein. Die Anwendung der Zwei-Farben-Methode zur Untersuchung von Interaktionen zwischen ß1- und ß2-adrenergen Rezeptoren zeigte Unterschiede zwischen beiden Rezeptor-Subtypen. ß1-AR zeigte eine spezifische transiente Interaktion, ß2-AR dagegen lagen als stabile Oligomere höherer Ordnung vor. Die transiente Interaktion zwischen ß1-AR und die stabile Oligomerisierung von ß2-AR wurde nicht nur in HEK 293T-Zellen sondern auch in neonatalen Rattenkardiomyozyten und bei 37 °C beobachtet. Ferner hatte der Aktivierungszustand des jeweiligen Rezeptors keinen Einfluß auf das Ausmaß der Interaktion. Zwischen ß1- und ß2-AR wurde nur eine sehr schwache und instabile Heterointeraktion mittels der Zwei-Farben-FRAP-Methode beobachtet. Um zu überprüfen, ob eine direkte Interaktion zwischen den adrenergen Rezeptoren vorliegt, wurde die BRET-Methode verwendet. Mittels BRET wurde eine direkte Interaktion zwischen ß2-AR festgestellt, jedoch konnte nicht zwischen Dimeren und Oligomeren höherer Ordnung unterschieden werden. Bei ß1-AR fand bei höheren YFP-Rluc-Expressionsverhältnissen ein spezifischer Energietransfer statt. Bei niedrigeren Expressionsverhältnissen lag das Signal jedoch im unspezifischen Bereich. Auch bei Untersuchung der Heterointeraktion zwischen ß1- und ß2-AR konnte keine klare Aussage über eine spezifische Interaktion zwischen beiden Rezeptor-Subtypen getroffen werden.
The widely used chemical acrylamide (AA) has been classified as a probable human carcinogen. This classification was based on positive results in rodent carcinogenicity studies as well as on a number of in vitro mutagenicity assays. In 2002, AA was discovered to be formed during the preparation of starch-containing foods. According to the latest FDA exposure assessment (2006), the average daily intake has been estimated from AA levels in foodstuffs and from nutritional habits to be around 0.4 µg/kg b.w. with a 90th percentile of 0.95 µg/kg b.w.. In children and adolescents however, the daily AA intake is about 1.5 times higher, due to lower body weight and differing consumption patterns. Apart from the diet, humans may be exposed to AA during the production or handling of monomeric AA, from AA residues in polyacrylamides, and from cigarette smoke. After oral administration, AA is readily absorbed and distributed throughout the organism. AA is metabolized to the reactive epoxide glycidamide (GA) via the CYP 450 isoenzyme CYP 2E1. Both, AA and GA are conjugated with glutathione. After enzymatic processing, the mercapturic acids N-Acetyl-S-(2-carbamoylethyl)-L-cysteine (AAMA) as well as the regioisomers N-Acetyl-S-(2-carbamoyl-2-hydroxyethyl)-L-cysteine (GAMA) and N-Acetyl-S-(1-carbamoyl-2-hydroxy-ethyl)-L-cysteine (iso-GAMA) are excreted with urine. An additional pathway for the metabolic conversion of GA is the epoxide hydrolase mediated hydrolysis to the diol compound glyceramide. Following administration of AA at doses exceeding the daily dietary intake by a factor of 1000 - 6000 to human subjects, a new urinary metabolite was found, which could be identified as the S-oxide of AAMA (AAMA-sulfoxide). In general, data from animal studies are used for risk assessment of (potential) human carcinogens. However, inter-species differences in toxicodynamics or toxicokinetics, e.g. in biotransformation may lead to under- or overestimation of human risk. The objective of this work was to establish a highly specific and sensitive analytical method to quantify the major urinary metabolites of AA. Other aims apart from measurements concerning the human background exposure were the evaluation of biotransformation and toxicokinetics of AA in humans and rats after oral administration of 13C3-AA. The obtained data was intended to help avoid linear extrapolation from animal models for future risk assessments of AA carcinogenicity.
Kaffee, die in der westlichen Welt am häufigsten verwendete psychoaktive Substanz, erwies sich im Mikrokern-Testes an Maus-Lymphomzellen L 5178Y als modulierend auf bekannte mutagene Agentien. In dieser Arbeit wurde meist Instantkaffee verwendet, der gegen N-Methyl-N-Nitro-N-Nitrosoguanidin (MNNG), Mitomycin C (MMC), Genistein, und Methylmethansulfonat getestet wurde. Bei MMC und Genistein erwies sich Kaffee als antimutagen. Bei MNNG hatte Kaffee keinen klaren Einfluss auf die Gentoxizität, ebenso blieb die Kaffee-Wirkung bezüglich MMS unklar. Kaffee minderte dosisabhängig das Wachstum und die Überlebensrate von L 5178Y - Zellen. Es wurde die Frage nach den Ursachen der modulierenden Effekte diskutiert. Insbesondere wurde die Hypothese erörtert, dass für die Richtung der Modulation nicht so sehr die Konzentration des Kaffees, sondern die mutagene Potenz der koinkubierten Substanz eine entscheidende Rolle spielen könnte. Ggf. wirkt Kaffee - im Sinne eines "abhärtenden" Effektes - bei schwach mutagenen Substanzen anitmutagen, bei stark mutagenen Substanzen hingegen synergistisch mutagen.
Bei Dialysepatienten sind vermehrte Genomschäden bekannt, sie unterliegen auch einer erhöhten Karzinominzidenz. Erhöhte Genomschäden können in vivo durch die Substitution von Folsäure reduziert werden, unter Gabe von Vitamin B12 sinkt die Empfindlichkeit gegenüber genotoxischen Agentien. 27 Dialysepatienten nahmen an dieser Studie teil. Die 9 Patienten der Substitutions-gruppe Folsäure erhielten dreimal wöchentlich 15 mg Folsäure intravenös, den 10 Patienten der Substitutionsgruppe Folsäure + Vitamin B12 wurde zusätzlich einmal wöchentlich 1000 µg Vitamin B12 intravenös verabreicht. 8 Dialysepatienten und 7 nicht dialysepflichtige Probanden dienten als Kontrolle. Zu drei Zeitpunkten vor und drei Zeitpunkten nach Substitutionsbeginn wurden die Mikrokernfrequenzen in peripheren, doppelkernigen Lymphozyten bestimmt. Mikro-kerne dienen als Marker für Genomschäden, die Methode ist gut erprobt und es ist ein Zusammenhang zwischen erhöhten Mikrokernfrequenzen und einer prospektiv erhöhten Karzinominzidenz beschrieben. Weiterhin wurden die Homocystein-Plasmaspiegel vor und nach Substitutionsbeginn gemessen. Homocystein zählt zu den Urämietoxinen, in vitro steigt bei erhöhten Homocysteinwerten dosisabhängig der Genomschaden in Form von Mikrokernen an. Vor Substitutionsbeginn wiesen die Dialysepatienten um ein mehrfaches gegenüber den Referenzwerten erhöhte Mikrokernfrequenzen auf, wobei die Mikrokernfrequenzen der Frauen deutlich über denen der Männer lagen. Mit zunehmender Dialysedauer kam es zu einer Reduktion der Mikrokernfrequenz, wobei diese immer noch gegenüber den Referenzwerten erhöht blieb. Unter Gabe von Folsäure + Vitamin B12 kam es zu einem signifikant stärkeren Rückgang der Mikrokernfrequenz als unter alleiniger Folsäuregabe. Dieser Rückgang unter Vitaminsubstitution nahm mit zunehmendem Dialysealter zunächst zu, bei einer Dialysedauer von länger als 10 Jahren nahm er wieder ab. Die Homocysteinspiegel waren vor Substitutionsbeginn deutlich erhöht. Unter kombinierter Gabe von Folsäure und Vitamin B12 kam es zu einer signifikanten Reduktion der Homocysteinwerte, so dass diese sogar unterhalb der im Normbereich liegenden Homocysteinwerte der nicht dialysepflichtigen Kontrollgruppe lagen. Ob die in der Studie vielversprechende kombinierte Substitution von Folsäure und Vitamin B12 tatsächlich das Krebsrisiko von Dialysepatienten beeinflussen kann, wird nur durch prospektive Langzeitstudien zu klären sein. Ebenfalls werden weitere Studien nötig sein, um die optimale Dosis, welche möglicherweise in Abhängigkeit von Alter, Geschlecht, Dialysedauer und Grunderkrankung variieren kann, zu ermitteln. Weitere Vorteile einer therapeutischen Gabe von Folsäure und Vitamin B12 liegen sicherlich einerseits in den vergleichsweise geringen Kosten und andererseits in der guten Verträglichkeit, welche für die Compliance der Patienten von großer Bedeutung ist.
Metabonomics bildet das Ende der Omics-Kaskade und stellt eine top-down-Strategie zur Erfassung und Interpretation des Metaboloms, d. h. der Gesamtheit aller niedermolekularen Metaboliten in einem intakten Organismus, dar. Ziel der Technik ist es, mittels geeigneter ungerichteter Screeningverfahren in nicht-invasiv zu gewinnenden biologischen Proben wie Urin oder Blut charakteristische Metabolitenprofile zu bestimmen. Im Kontext des Metabonomics wurde in Anlehnung an den Geno- bzw. Phänotyp hierfür der Begriff „Metabotyp“ geprägt. Durch biostatistische Methoden, die auf Mustererkennung (pattern recognition) basieren, können Signaturen gegenübergestellt und auf diesem Weg gruppenspezifische Metaboliten, d. h. Biomarker bzw. Metabolitenmuster, extrahiert werden. Metabonomics kann folglich als Fusion klassischer bioanalytischer und biostatistischer Verfahren aufgefasst werden. Seit der Einführung im Jahr 1999 hat sich das Konzept des Metabonomics in mehrere Richtungen weiterentwickelt. So gab es Bestrebungen, die Technik, die ursprünglich zur Prädiktion von toxischen Effekten bei der Arzneistoffentwicklung etabliert wurde, auf Fragestellungen zu übertragen, die den Menschen im Mittelpunkt haben. Neben präklinischen Anwendungen verfolgt man mit Metabonomics zunehmend das Ziel, einer personalisierten Medizin und Ernährung einen Schritt näher zu kommen. Da sich die ursprünglich eingesetzte NMR-Technik als zu unempfindlich und die resultierenden Metabolitenprofile als zu anfällig gegenüber biologischen und analytischen Einflussgrößen (Confoundern) erwiesen haben, wurde parallel auf sensitivere Verfahren wie die Massenspektrometrie gesetzt. Insbesondere die Kopplung mit der Hochdruckflüssigchromatographie erwies sich hierbei für das Metabolitenscreening als geeignet. Schnell wurde allerdings klar, dass aus den klassischen full scan/TOF-Methoden Datensätze resultierten, die häufig zu komplex waren, um mit nachgeschalteten chemometrischen Verfahren die „Spreu vom Weizen trennen“ zu können. Da sich Metabolitendatenbanken bisher noch im Aufbau befinden, ist die Identifizierung der Marker mit zusätzlichen Schwierigkeiten verbunden und bedarf aufwändiger analytischer Verfahren. Eine Strategie stellt daher die Beschränkung auf ein Metabolitensubset dar. Indem man sich auf Metabolitenklassen fokussiert, die einen Bezug zum untersuchten Mechanismus haben, können die Erfolgsaussichten bei der Identifizierung charakteristischer Biomarker deutlich erhöht werden. Aufgrund zahlreicher exogener und endogener Faktoren (Arzneistoffe, Industriechemikalien, Nahrungsbestandteile, Tabakrauchbestandteile, Produkte der Lipidperoxidation etc.) ist der menschliche Organismus stets einer Vielzahl an elektrophilen Verbindungen ausgesetzt. Oxidative Schädigungen an Strukturen wie der DNA, Proteinen und Lipiden werden mit einer Reihe von Krankheitsbildern in Zusammenhang gebracht, darunter Parkinson, Alzheimer, Krebs und Volkskrankheiten wie Arteriosklerose, Allergien und koronare Herzerkrankungen. Mit dem Glutathionsystem verfügt der Körper über einen wirksamen Detoxifizierungsmechanismus. Das Tripeptid Glutathion reagiert als Nukleophil mit den exogen oder endogen gebildeten elektrophilen Intermediaten. Endprodukte sind Merkaptursäuren (N-Acetyl-L-Cystein-Addukte) bzw. deren Sulfoxide, die in erster Linie mit dem Urin ausgeschieden werden. Folglich besteht zwischen diesen Merkaptursäurederivaten und der elektrophilen Belastung eines Organismus ein direkter Zusammenhang. Vor diesem Hintergrund war es das Ziel der Arbeit, einen nicht-invasiven Metabonomicsansatz zur Anwendung am Menschen zu entwickeln. Durch die Fokussierung des Metabolitenscreenings auf die Effekt-, Dosis- und Suszeptibilitätsmarkerklasse der Merkaptursäuren sollten hierbei die Erfolgsaussichten im Hinblick auf die Identifizierung potentieller Biomarker für diverse toxikologische sowie medizinische Endpunkte erhöht werden.
Die Herzinsuffizienz ist eine der führenden Todesursachen weltweit. Eine auf die neurohumorale Aktivierung zugeschnittene Therapie mit ACE-Hemmern bzw. Angiotensin-Rezeptorantagonisten, Betablockern, Aldosteronantagonisten und Diuretika verbessert zwar die Symptomatik und Prognose. Letztere ist bei Diagnosestellung jedoch immer noch schlechter als die vieler maligner Erkrankungen einzuschätzen. Ziel ist daher die Entwicklung von Medikamenten, die den Krankheitsverlauf des Syndroms Herzinsuffizienz aufhalten bzw. umkehren. Ein Ansatz ist dabei die Analyse sogenannter Kandidatengene, die im kranken Herzen differentiell exprimiert werden und potentiell medikamentös beeinflussbar sind. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden zwei solcher Kandidatengene charakterisiert. Mäuse mit kardialer Überexpression b1-adrenerger Rezeptoren entwickeln eine Herzinsuffizienz mit kardialer Hypertrophie und Fibrose. In Gen Arrays mit 21000 Maus-ESTs zeigten sich unter anderem die Gene des Uncoupling Protein 2 (UCP2) und der Diphosphoinositol-Polyphosphat-Phosphohydrolase 2 alpha (DIPP2a) aktiviert. Diese Befunde wurden zunächst mittels RNase Protection Assay und RT-PCR bestätigt. Auch andere murine Herzinsuffizienzmodelle wurden untersucht. So ließ sich ebenfalls im druckinduzierten Herzinsuffizienzmodell nach artifizieller Aortenstenose sowie im b2-AR überexprimierenden Herzen eine erhöhte Konzentration von UCP2- und DIPP2a-mRNA messen. Um zu prüfen, ob diese differentielle mRNA-Expression deletäre oder protektive Effekte vermittelt, wurden jeweils transgene Mauslinien mit herzspezifischer Überexpression von UCP2 und DIPP2a generiert. Die Linie UCP2-TG1 mit hoher Überexpression sowie ein Gründer-Tier der UCP2-transgenen Mäuse entwickelten eine Herzinsuffizienz mit vergrößertem Herzen, linksventrikulärem Pumpversagen, interstitieller Fibrose und typischen Veränderungen der molekularen Marker ANF und SERCA. Zudem fanden sich dilatierte Vorhöfe sowie eine bradykarde Herzrhythmusstörung. UCP2 ist ein Entkoppler der oxidativen Phosphorylierung im Mitochondrium. Im energieintensiven Stoffwechsel des Myokards könnte eine durch UCP2 reduzierte ATP-Synthese zu den genannten Veränderungen führen. Für UCP2 wurden auch protektive Eigenschaften durch das Abfangen freier Radikale beschrieben. Die Linie UCP2-TG3 mit niedrigerem Überexpressionsniveau und ohne kardialen Phänotyp wurde deshalb einem Aortic banding unterzogen, wo sich in der Überlebenskurve kein protektiver oder deletärer Effekt einer moderat vermehrten Entkopplung im Vergleich zum Wildtyp zeigte. In drei unabhängigen Linien transgener Mäuse mit herzspezifischer Überexpression von DIPP2a ließ sich morphometrisch eine kardiale Hypertrophie nachweisen. Die Linie DIPP2a-TG9 mit dem höchsten Überexpressionsniveau zeigte zudem eine kardiale Fibrose sowie unter Dobutamin eine verminderte kardiale Kontraktilitätsreserve im Vergleich zum Wildtypen. DIPP-Proteine hydrolysieren Inositolphosphate und Nukleosiddiphosphate und greifen so in zentrale Stoffwechselvorgänge ein, die im einzelnen noch nicht geklärt sind. Es konnte hier im Mausmodell gezeigt werden, dass UCP2 und DIPP2a zwei für die Entwicklung einer Herzinsuffizienz relevante Zielproteine darstellen. Geplant ist die weitere Aufklärung der beteiligten Mechanismen, um diese letztlich auch therapeutisch beeinflussen zu können.
Nierenerkrankungen und die dazu gehörige Nierenersatztherapien spiegeln im Verlauf der letzten fünfzig Jahren die rasanten Entwicklungen der heutigen hochtechnisierten Medizin wider. Durch die zunehmende Lebenserwartung der Patienten unter langjährigen Blutreinigungsverfahren werden Probleme sichtbar, die vorher nicht zu erwarten waren, insbesondere ist hier die schwerwiegende Problematik der erhöhten Malignominzidenz in dieser Bevölkerungspopulation hervorzuheben. Die Ursachenforschung und die Prävention dieser erhöhten Malignominzidenz wird immer wichtiger. Die Zahl der Betroffenen steigt kontinuierlich. "Moderne" Erkrankungen wie Diabetes mellitus und arterielle Hypertonie, die zur terminalen Niereninsuffizienz führen, haben die Dimension von Volkserkrankungen erreicht. Die Entstehung von Mikrokernen im Zellplasma neben dem eigentlichen Zellkern steht im dringendem Verdacht, dass sie einen Schritt in der Mutationsinduktion und Kanzerogenese darstellen und/oder diese Entwicklung anzeigen. Die Mikrokernfrequenz wird auch als Marker für eine akzidentelle oder chronische Schädigung des Genmaterials (z.B. nach beruflicher Exposition) genutzt. Auf zellulärer Ebene ist die Mikrokerninduktion auch Zeichen einer herabgesetzten Funktion der DNA-Repairmechanismen. Defekte dieser Mechanismen begünstigen nachgewiesenermaßen die Entstehung von Malignomen aller Art. Ziel der Arbeit war zu zeigen ob die in vivo beobachtete erhöhte Malignominzidenz bei Patienten unter Hämodialyse auch in Mikrokernfrequenzen abgebildet werden kann. Hier wurde die in vitro Behandlung mit einer bekannten kanzerogenen Substanz verwendet, um eine eventuell veränderte zelluläre Antwort in Form von gesteigerter Mikrokernfrequenzen in vitro zu provozieren. Dies wird als indirektes Zeichen der DNA-Repairfähigkeit angesehen. Als Substanz wurde Methylmethansulfonat verwendet. Die dafür modifizierte Methodik mit der Zusatz des kanzerogenen Methylmethansulfonat in Konzentrationen von 10, 20 und 40 µg/ml war ein zusätzlicher Stress für die Zellkulturen. Diese ließ aber in ausreichendem Maße die Vermehrung und Induktion von doppelkernigen Lymphozyten zu, so dass die Registrierung der Mikrokerne glaubhaft und repräsentativ war. Es wurden drei Gruppen von Probanden untersucht: Personen unter Dialyse, Patienten in einem Prädialysestadium und nierengesunde Probanden als Kontrollgruppe. Die Hämodialysepatienten zeigten keinen signifikanten Unterschied im Vergleich zu den Kontrollpatienten. Tendenziell erhöhte Mikrokernraten zeigten die Prädialysepatienten in allen Kategorien. Erwartungsgemäß war bei älteren Personen-Subgruppen eine gesteigterte Rate an in vitro induzierten Mikrokernen nach Erhöhung der kanzerogenen Substanzkonzentration zu finden. Es müssen sicherlich weitere Faktoren identifiziert werden, um den genetischen Schaden durch die verminderte DNA-Repairkapazität in Form von Mikrokernen zuverlässig abbilden zu können. Hier könnten eine Mindestdauer der Dialyse von 10 Jahren sowie ein Kreatininwert von über 5 mg/dl eine entscheidende Rolle spielen.
Die vorliegende Studie zeigt erstmals, dass eine erhöhte Ca2+-Empfindlichkeit der kardialen Myofilamente im Tiermodell einen selbstständigen Risikofaktor bei der Entstehung von Herzrhythmusstörungen darstellt. Dies konnte sowohl für chronische Erhöhung der Ca2+-Empfindlichkeit im Rahmen einer Familiären Hypertrophen Kardiomyopathie (FHK) als auch für eine akute Erhöhung mit Hilfe eines Ca2+-Sensitizers gezeigt werden. Die Ergebnisse der Arbeit bieten so eine mögliche Erklärung für plötzlichen Herztod bei bestimmten Patienten mit FHK. Sie schränken weiterhin den Einsatz von Ca2+-Sensitizern ein. Schließlich beleuchten sie einen bisher kaum untersuchten Aspekt in der Arrhythmogenese von Herzinsuffizienz und nach einem Myokard-Infarkt. Auf zellulärer Ebene findet sich ein veränderter Ca2+-Zyklus mit erniedrigten und verlangsamten Transienten. Diese Veränderungen sind wahrscheinlich eine direkte Konsequenz der erhöhten Bindungsaffinität für Ca2+. Die Myofilamente sind „klebriger“ für Ca2+, während der Systole wird mehr Ca2+ gebunden, während der Diastole hingegen dissoziiert es langsamer. Bei adrenerger Stimulation und schnellen Herzfrequenzen mit entsprechender Verkürzung der Diastole kommt es zu erhöhtem diastolischem [Ca2+]i und zu erhöhten Ca2+-Inhalt des Sarkoplasmatischen Retikulums. Der so veränderte Ca2+-Zyklus führt wahrscheinlich mit Hilfe des Na+/Ca2+-Austauschers zu Veränderungen der Repolarisation des Aktionspotentials. Bei schnellen Herzfrequenzen treten Aktionspotential-Verlängerung, Ca2+-abhängige Nachdepolarisationen und getriggerte Schläge auf. Auf Organ-Ebene findet sich eine verkürzte Refraktärzeit. Damit sind sowohl ein Trigger als auch ein arrhythmogenes Substrat für die beobachteten ventrikulären Arrhythmien gegeben.
In patients suffering from end-stage renal disease who are treated by hemodialysis genomic damage as well as cancer incidence is elevated. One possible cause for the increased genomic damage could be the accumulation of genotoxic substances in the blood of patients. Two possible sources for those toxins have to be considered. The first possibility is that substances from dialysers, the blood tubing system or even contaminated dialysis solutions may leach into the blood of the patients during dialysis. Secondly, the loss of renal filtration leads to an accumulation of substances which are normally excreted by the kidney. If those substances possess toxic potential, they are called uremic toxins. Several of these uremic toxins are potentially genotoxic. Within this thesis several exemplary uremic toxins have been tested for genotoxic effects (homocysteine, homocysteine-thiolactone,leptine, advanced glycated end-products). Additionally, it was analysed whether substances are leaching from dialysers or blood tubing and whether they cause effects in in vitrotoxicity testing. The focus of chemical analytisis was on bisphenol A (BPA), the main component of plastics used in dialysers and dialyser membranes.
alpha2-adrenerge Rezeptoren, von denen drei verschiedene Subtypen (alpha2A, alpha2B, alpha2C) kloniert wurden, gehören zur Familie der G-Protein-gekoppelten Rezeptoren und vermitteln vielfältige physiologische Funktionen der Transmitter Adrenalin und Noradrenalin. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit sollte untersucht werden, inwieweit Rezeptorsubtypen, die subzelluläre Lokalisation von Rezeptoren oder der Differenzierungsstatus einer Zelle für die funktionelle Diversität der alpha2-Rezeptor-Effekte in vivo verantwortlich sind. Im ersten Teil des Projektes wurde ein transgenes Mausmodell untersucht, bei dem selektiv alpha2A-Rezeptoren unter Kontrolle des Dopamin-beta-Hydroxylase Promotors in adrenergen Neuronen exprimiert wurden. In diesem Modell sollte getestet werden, ob ein einzelner Rezeptorsubtyp in den verschiedenen Neuronen des sympathischen Nervensystems in vivo identische Funktionen hat. Transgene alpha2A-Rezeptoren hemmten in vivo zwar die Freisetzung von Noradrenalin aus sympathischen Nervenfasern nicht aber die Exozytose von Adrenalin aus dem Nebennierenmark. Deshalb stellte sich die Frage, ob die Rezeptorfunktion von der Morphologie, dem Differenzierungsstatus der Zellen oder von der subzellulären Lokalisation der Rezeptoren abhängt. Hierfür wurden alpha2A-Rezeptoren durch Varianten des grün fluoreszierenden Proteins markiert und mittels FRET-Fluoreszenzmikroskopie untersucht. In PC12 Phäochromozytomzellen, die durch NGF zum Auswachsen neuronaler Fortsätze stimuliert wurden, waren die Agonist-bedingten Konformationsänderungen von alpha2A-Rezeptoren jedoch weder vom Differenzierungsstatus der Zellen noch von deren subzellulärer Lokalisation abhängig. Lediglich in transient transfizierten Zellen waren im Vergleich zu stabil transfizierten Zellen höhere Agonist-Konzentrationen zur Rezeptoraktivierung erforderlich. Diese Befunde zeigen, dass zusätzlich zur Diversität der Rezeptorsubtypen auf Proteinebene der zelluläre Kontext, in dem ein Rezeptor exprimiert wird, eine ganz wesentliche Rolle für dessen Funktion spielt.