70.00.00 CONDENSED MATTER: ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE, ELECTRICAL, MAGNETIC, AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES
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Institute
Sonstige beteiligte Institutionen
- Center for Nanosystems Chemistry (CNC), Universität Würzburg (1)
- Institute of Physics and Center for Nanotechnology, University of Münster (1)
- Lehrstuhl für BioMolekulare Optik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (1)
- NanoOptics & Biophotonics Group, Experimental Physics 5, Universität Würzburg (1)
EU-Project number / Contract (GA) number
- 614623 (1)
Exziton-Polaritonen sind hybride Quasiteilchen, die entstehen durch die starke Kopplung zwischen Halbleiter-Exzitonen und Mikrokavitätsphotonen in einem optischen Resonator. Aufgrund ihres bosonischen Charakters können die Polaritonen Kondensate ausbilden. In dieser Arbeit ist der emittierende organische Halbleiter das fluoreszierende Protein mCherry. Um einen räumlichen Einschluss zu generieren wurden hemisphärische Potentiale genutzt. Durch die Variation der Potentiallandschaft (Linse, Molekül, Kette, Su-Schrieffer-Heeger-Kette und Honigwaben-Gitter) konnten Eigenschaften wie beispielsweise topologisch nicht-triviale Defekte experimentell bei Umgebungstemperatur demonstriert werden. Zusammengefasst beschäftigt sich diese Arbeit mit der Exziton-Polartion Kondensation in unterschiedlichen Potentiallandschaften mit dem organischen Halbleiter mCherry.
In this thesis, a model system of a magnetic topological heterostructure is studied, namely a heterosystem consisting of a single ferromagnetic septuple-layer (SL) of \(MnBi_2Te_4\) on the surface of the three-dimensional topological insulator \(Bi_2Te_3\).
Using MBE and developing a specialized experimental setup, the first part of this thesis deals with the growth of \(Bi_2Te_3\) and thin films of \(MnBi_2Te_4\) on \(BaF_2\)-substrates by the co-evaporation of its binary constituents. The structural analysis is conducted along several suitable probes such as X-ray diffraction (XRD, XRR), AFM and scanning tunnelling electron microscopy (STEM). It is furthermore found that the growth of a single septuple-layer of \(MnBi_2Te_4\) on the surface of \(Bi_2Te_3\) can be facilitated.
By using X-ray absorption and circular magnetic dichroism (XAS, XMCD), the magnetic properties of \(MnBi_2Te_4\) are explored down to the monolayer limit. The layered nature of the vdW crystal and a strong uniaxial magnetocrystalline anisotropy establish stable out-of plane magnetic order at the surface of \(MnBi_2Te_4\), which is stable even down to the 2D limit. Pushing the material system to there, i.e. a single SL \(MnBi_2Te_4\) further allows to study the phase transition of this 2D ferromagnet and extract its critical behaviour with \(T_c \, = \, 14.89~k\) and \(\beta \, = \, 0.484\).
Utilizing bulk crystals of the ferromagnetic \(Fe_3GeTe_2\) as substrate allows to influence, enhance and bias the magnetism in the single SL of \(MnBi_2Te_4\). By growing heterostructures of the type \(MnBi_2Te_4\) -- n layer \(Bi_2Te_3\) -- \(Fe_3GeTe_2\)for n between 0 and 2, it is shown, that a considerable magnetic coupling can be introduced between the \(MnBi_2Te_4\) top-layer and the substrate.
Finally the interplay between topology and magnetism in the ferromagnetic extension is studied directly by angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy. The heterostructure is found to host a linearly dispersing TSS at the centre of the Brillouin zone. Using low temperature and high-resolution ARPES a large magnetic gap opening of \(\sim\) 35 meV is found at the Dirac point of the TSS. By following its temperature evolution, it is apparent that the scaling behaviour coincides with the magnetic order parameter of the modified surface.
This work presents a newly developed method for the epitaxial growth of the half-Heusler antiferromagnet CuMnSb. All necessary process steps, from buffer growth to the deposition of a protective layer, are presented in detail. Using structural, electrical, and magnetic characterization, the material parameters of the epitaxial CuMnSb layers are investigated.
The successful growth of CuMnSb by molecular beam epitaxy is demonstrated on InAs (001), GaSb (001), and InP (001) substrates. While CuMnSb can be grown pseudomorphically on InAs and GaSb, the significant lattice mismatch for growth on InP leads to relaxation already at low film thicknesses. Due to the lower conductivity of GaSb compared to InAs, GaSb substrates are particularly suitable for the fabrication of CuMnSb layers for lateral electrical transport experiments. However, by growing a high-resistive ZnTe interlayer below the CuMnSb layer, lateral transport experiments on CuMnSb layers grown on InAs can also be realized. Protective layers of Ru and Al2O3 have proven to be suitable for protecting the CuMnSb layers from the environment.
Structural characterization by high resolution X-ray diffraction (full width at half maximum of 7.7 ′′ of the rocking curve) and atomic force microscopy (root mean square surface roughness of 0.14 nm) reveals an outstanding crystal quality of the epitaxial CuMnSb layers. The half-Heusler crystal structure is confirmed by scanning transmission electron microscopy and the stoichiometric material composition by Rutherford backscattering spectrometry. In line with the high crystal quality, a new minimum value of the residual resistance of CuMnSb (𝜌0 = 35 μΩ ⋅ cm) could be measured utilizing basic electrical transport experiments.
An elaborate study of epitaxial CuMnSb grown on GaSb reveals a dependence of the vertical lattice parameter on the Mn/Sb flux ratio. This characteristic enables the growth of tensile, unstrained, and compressive strained CuMnSb layers on a single substrate material. Additionally, it is shown that the Néel temperature has a maximum of 62 K at stoichiometric material composition and thus can be utilized as a selection tool for stoichiometric CuMnSb samples. Mn-related defects are believed to be the driving force for these observations.
The magnetic characterization of the epitaxial CuMnSb films is performed by superconducting quantum interference device magnetometry. Magnetic behavior comparable to the bulk material is found, however, an additional complex magnetic phase appears in thin CuMnSb films and/or at low magnetic fields, which has not been previously reported for CuMnSb. This magnetic phase is believed to be localized at the CuMnSb surface and exhibits both superparamagnetic and spin-glass-like behavior. The exchange bias effect of CuMnSb is investigated in combination with different in- and out-of-plane ferromagnets. It is shown that the exchange bias effect can only be observed in combination with in-plane ferromagnets.
Finally, the first attempts at the growth of fully epitaxial CuMnSb/NiMnSb heterostructures are presented. Both magnetic and structural studies by secondary-ion mass spectrometry indicate the interdiffusion of Cu and Ni atoms between the two half-Heusler layers, however, an exchange bias effect can be observed for the CuMnSb/NiMnSb heterostructures. Whether this exchange bias effect originates from exchange interaction between the CuMnSb and NiMnSb layers, or from ferromagnetic inclusions in the antiferromagnetic layer can not be conclusively identified.
The fact that photovoltaics is a key technology for climate-neutral energy production can be taken as a given. The question to what extent perovskite will be used for photovoltaic technologies has not yet been fully answered. From a photophysical point of view, however, it has the potential to make a useful contribution to the energy sector. However, it remains to be seen whether perovskite-based modules will be able to compete with established technologies in terms of durability and cost efficiency. The additional aspect of ionic migration poses an additional challenge. In the present work, primarily the interaction between ionic redistribution, capacitive properties and recombination dynamics was investigated. This was done using impedance spectroscopy, OCVD and IV characteristics as well as extensive numerical drift-diffusion simulations. The combination of experimental and numerical methods proved to be very fruitful. A suitable model for the description of solar cells with respect to mobile ions was introduced in chapter 4.4. The formal mathematical description of the model was transferred by a non-dimensionalization and suitable numerically solvable form. The implementation took place in the Julia language. By intelligent use of structural properties of the sparse systems of equations, automatic differentiation and the use of efficient integration methods, the simulation tool is not only remarkably fast in finding the solution, but also scales quasi-linearly with the grid resolution. The software package was released under an open source license. In conventional semiconductor diodes, capacitance measurements are often used to determine the space charge density. In the first experimental chapter 5, it is shown that although this is also possible for the ionic migration present in perovskites, it cannot be directly understood as doping related, since the space charge distribution strongly depends on the preconditions and can be manipulated by an externally applied voltage. The exact form of this behavior depends on the perovskite composition. This shows, among other things, that experimental results can only be interpreted within the framework of conventional semiconductors to a very limited extent. Nevertheless, the built-in 99 potential of the solar cell can be determined if the experiments are carried out properly. A statement concerning the type and charge of the mobile ions is not possible without further effort, while their number can be determined. The simulations were applied to experimental data in chapter 6. Thus, it could be shown that mobile ions make a significant contribution to the OCVD of perovskite solar cells. j-V characteristics and OCVD transients measured as a function of temperature and illumination intensities could be quantitatively modeled simultaneously using a single global set of parameters. By the simulations it was further possible to derive a simple experimental procedure to determine the concentration and the diffusivity of the mobile ions. The possibility of describing different experiments in a uniform temperaturedependent manner strongly supports the model of mobile ions in perovskites. In summary, this work has made an important contribution to the elucidation of ionic contributions to the (photo)electrical properties of perovskite solar cells. Established experimental techniques for conventional semiconductors have been reinterpreted with respect to ionic mass transport and new methods have been proposed to draw conclusions on the properties for ionic transport. As a result, the published simulation tools can be used for a number of further studies.
Relativistic effects crucially influence the fundamental properties of many quantum materials. In the accelerated reference frame of an electron, the electric field of the nuclei is transformed into a magnetic field that couples to the electron spin. The resulting interaction between an electron spin and its orbital angular momentum, known as spin-orbit coupling (SOC), is hence fundamental to the physics of many condensed matter phenomena. It is particularly important quantitatively in low-dimensional quantum systems, where its coexistence with inversion symmetry breaking can lead to a splitting of spin degeneracy and spin momentum locking. Using the paradigm of Landau Fermi liquid theory, the physics of SOC can be adequately incorporated in an effective single particle picture. In a weak coupling approach, electronic correlation effects beyond single particle propagator renormalization can trigger Fermi surface instabilities such as itinerant magnetism, electron nematic phases, superconductivity, or other symmetry broken states of matter.
In this thesis, we use a weak coupling-based approach to study the effect of SOC on Fermi surface instabilities and, in particular, superconductivity. This encompasses a weak coupling renormalization group formulation of unconventional superconductivity as well as the random phase approximation. We propose a unified formulation for both of these two-particle Green’s function approaches based on the notion of a generalized susceptibility.
In the half-Heusler semimetal and superconductor LuPtBi, both SOC and electronic correlation
effects are prominent, and thus indispensable for any concise theoretical description. The metallic and weakly dispersive surface states of this material feature spin momentum locked Fermi surfaces, which we propose as a possible domain for the onset of unconventional surface superconductivity. Using our framework for the analysis of Fermi surface instability and combining it with ab-initio density functional theory calculations, we analyse the surface band structure of LuPtBi, and particularly its propensity towards Cooper pair formation. We study how the presence of strong SOC modifies the classification of two-electron wave functions as well as the screening of electron-electron interactions. Assuming an electronic mechanism, we identify a chiral superconducting condensate featuring Majorana edge modes to be energetically favoured over a wide range of model parameters.
After the discovery of three-dimensional topological insulators (TIs), such as tetradymite chalcogenides Bi$_2$Se$_3$, Bi$_2$Te$_3$ and Sb$_2$Te$_3$ – a new class of quantum materials characterized by their unique surface electronic properties – the solid state community got focused on topological states that are driven by strong electronic correlations and magnetism. An important material class is the magnetic TI (MTI) exhibiting the quantum anomalous Hall (QAH) effect, i.e. a dissipationless quantized edge-state transport in the absence of external magnetic field, originating from the interplay between ferromagnetism and a topologically non-trivial band structure. The unprecedented opportunities offered by these new exotic materials open a new avenue for the development of low-dissipation electronics, spintronics, and quantum computation. However, the major concern with QAH effect is its extremely low onset temperature, limiting its practical application. To resolve this problem, a comprehensive understanding of the microscopic origin of the underlying ferromagnetism is necessary.
V- and Cr-doped (Bi,Sb)$_2$Te$_3$ are the two prototypical systems that have been widely studied as realizations of the QAH state. Finding microscopic differences between the strongly correlated V and Cr impurities would help finding a relevant model of ferromagnetic coupling and eventually provide better control of the QAH effect in these systems. Therefore, this thesis first focuses on the V- and Cr-doped (Bi,Sb)$_2$Te$_3$ systems, to better understand these differences. Exploiting the unique capabilities of x-ray absorption spectroscopy and magnetic circular dichroism (XAS/XMCD), combined with advanced modeling based on multiplet ligand-field theory (MLFT), we provide a detailed microscopic insight into the local electronic and magnetic properties of these systems and determine microscopic parameters crucial for the comparison with theoretical models, which include the $d$-shell filling, spin and orbital magnetic moments. We find a strongly covalent ground state, dominated by the superposition of one and two Te-ligand-hole configurations, with a negligible contribution from a purely ionic 3+ configuration. Our findings indicate the importance of the Te $5p$ states for the ferromagnetism in (Bi, Sb)$_2$Te$_3$ and favor magnetic coupling mechanisms involving $pd$-exchange. Using state-of-the-art density functional theory (DFT) calculations in combination with XMCD and resonant photoelectron spectroscopy (resPES), we reveal the important role of the $3d$ impurity states in mediating magnetic exchange coupling. Our calculations illustrate that the kind and strength of the exchange coupling varies with the impurity $3d$-shell occupation. We find a weakening of ferromagnetic properties upon the increase of doping concentration, as well as with the substitution of Bi at the Sb site. Finally, we qualitatively describe the origin of the induced magnetic moments at the Te and Sb sites in the host lattice and discuss their role in mediating a robust ferromagnetism based on a $pd$-exchange interaction scenario. Our findings reveal important clues to designing higher $T_{\text{C}}$ MTIs.
Rare-earth ions typically exhibit larger magnetic moments than transition-metal ions and thus promise the opening of a wider exchange gap in the Dirac surface states of TIs, which is favorable for the realization of the high-temperature QAH effect. Therefore, we have further focused on Eu-doped Bi$_2$Te$_3$ and scrutinized whether the conditions for formation of a substantial gap in this system are present by combining spectroscopic and bulk characterization methods with theoretical calculations. For all studied Eu doping concentrations, our atomic multiplet analysis of the $M_{4,5}$ x-ray absorption and magnetic circular dichroism spectra reveals a Eu$^{2+}$ valence, unlike most other rare earth elements, and confirms a large magnetic moment. At temperatures below 10 K, bulk magnetometry indicates the onset of antiferromagnetic ordering. This is in good agreement with DFT results, which predict AFM interactions between the Eu impurities due to the direct overlap of the impurity wave functions. Our results support the notion of antiferromagnetism coexisting with topological surface states in rare-earth doped Bi$_2$Te$_3$ and corroborate the potential of such doping to result in an antiferromagnetic TI with exotic quantum properties.
The doping with impurities introduces disorder detrimental for the QAH effect, which may be avoided in stoichiometric, well-ordered magnetic compounds. In the last part of the thesis we have investigated the recently discovered intrinsic magnetic TI (IMTI) MnBi$_6$Te$_{10}$, where we have uncovered robust ferromagnetism with $T_{\text{C}} \approx 12$ K and connected its origin to the Mn/Bi intermixing. Our measurements reveal a magnetically intact surface with a large moment, and with FM properties similar to the bulk, which makes MnBi$_6$Te$_{10}$ a promising candidate for the QAH effect at elevated temperatures. Moreover, using an advanced ab initio MLFT approach we have determined the ground-state properties of Mn and revealed a predominant contribution of the $d^5$ configuration to the ground state, resulting in a $d$-shell electron occupation $n_d = 5.31$ and a large magnetic moment, in excellent agreement with our DFT calculations and the bulk magnetometry data. Our results together with first principle calculations based on the DFT-GGA$+U$, performed by our collaborators, suggest that carefully engineered intermixing plays a crucial role in achieving a robust long-range FM order and therefore could be the key for achieving enhanced QAH effect properties.
We expect our findings to aid better understanding of MTIs, which is essential to help increasing the temperature of the QAH effect, thus facilitating the realization of low-power electronics in the future.
Photoelectron spectroscopy proves as a versatile tool for investigating various aspects of the electronic structure in strongly correlated electron systems. Influencing the manifestation of strong correlation in Ce-based surface alloys is the main task of this work. It is shown, that the manifestation of the Kondo ground state is influenced by a multitude of parameters such as the choice of the metal binding partner in binary Ce compounds, the surface alloy layer thickness and accompanying variations in the lattice structure as well as the interfaces to substrate or vacuum. Gaining access to these parameters allows to directly influence essential state variables, such as the f level occupancy nf or the Kondo temperature TK.
The center of this work are the intermetallic thin films of CePt5/Pt(111) and CeAgx/Ag(111). By utilizing different excitation energies, photoemission spectroscopy provides access to characteristic features of Kondo physics in the valence band, such as the Kondo resonance and its spin-orbit partner at the Fermi level, as well as the multiplet structure of the Ce 3d core levels. In this work both approaches are applied to CePt5/Pt(111) to determine nf and TK for a variety of surface alloy layer thicknesses. A temperature dependent study of the Ce 3d core levels allows to determine the systems TK for the different layer thicknesses. This leads to TK ≈200–270K in the thin layer thickness regime and TK >280K for larger layer thicknesses. These results are confirmed by fitting the Ce 3d multiplet based on the Gunnarsson-Schönhammer formalism for core level spectroscopy and additionally by valence band photoemission spectra of the respective Kondo resonances. The influence of varying layer thickness on the manifestation of strong correlation is subsequently studied for the surface alloy CeAgx/Ag(111). Furthermore, the heavy element Bi is added, to investigate the effects of strong spin-orbit coupling on the electronic structure of the surface alloy.
Quantum point contacts (QPCs) are one-dimensional constrictions in an otherwise extended two-dimensional electron or hole system. Since their first realization in GaAs based two-dimensional electron gases, QPCs have become basic building blocks of mesoscopic physics and are used in manifold experimental contexts. A so far unrealized goal however is the implementation of QPCs in the new material class of two-dimensional topological insulators, which host the emergence of the so-called quantum spin Hall (QSH) effect. The latter is characterized by the formation of conducting one-dimensional spin-polarized states at the device edges, while the bulk is insulating. Consequently, an implemented QPC technology can be utilized to bring the QSH edge channels in close spatial proximity, thus for example enabling the study of interaction effects between the edge states. The thesis at hand describes the technological realization as well as the subsequent experimental characterization and analysis of QPCs in a QSH system for the first time.
After an introduction is given in Chapter 1, the subsequent Chapter 2 starts with discussing the peculiar band structure of HgTe. The emergence of the QSH phase for HgTe quantum wells with an inverted band structure is explained. For the band inversion to occur, the quantum wells have to exhibit a well thickness d_QW above a critical value (d_QW > d_c = 6.3 nm). Subsequently, the concept of QPCs is explicated and the corresponding transport behaviour is analytically described. Following the discussion of relevant constraints when realizing a QPC technology in a QSH system, a newly developed lithography process utilizing a multi-step wet etching technique for fabricating QPC devices based on HgTe quantum wells is presented. Transport measurements of exemplary devices show the expected conductance quantization in steps of ΔG ≈ 2e^2/h within the conduction band for a topological as well as for a trivial (d_QW < d_c) QPC. For the topological case, the residual conductance within the bulk band gap saturates at G_QSH ≈ 2e^2/h due to presence of the QSH state, while it drops to G ≈ 0 for the trivial device. Moreover, bias voltage dependent measurements of the differential conductance of an inverted sample provide explicit proof of the unperturbed coexistence of topological and trivial transport modes.
In a next step, Chapter 3 describes the emergence of a QSH interferometer state in narrow QPC devices with a quantum well thickness of d_QW = 7 nm. Presented band structure calculations reveal that the spatial extension of the QSH edge states depends on the position of the Fermi energy within the bulk band gap. As a consequence, reservoir electrons with randomized spin couple to both edge channels with the same probability under certain conditions, thus causing the formation of a QSH ring. A straightforward model capturing and specifying the occurrence of such a QSH interferometer is provided as well as substantiated by two experimental plausibility checks. After relevant quantum phases are theoretically introduced, the discussion of the obtained data reveals the accumulation of an Aharonov-Bohm phase, of a dynamical Aharonov-Casher phase as well as of a spin-orbit Berry phase of π in appropriate QPC devices. These results are consistent with analytic model considerations.
The last part of this thesis, Chapter 4, covers the observation of an unexpected conductance pattern for QPC samples fabricated from quantum wells with d_QW = 10.5 nm. In these devices, an anomalous plateau at G ≈ e^2/h = 0.5 x G_QSH emerges in addition to the QSH phase entailed residual conductance of G_QSH ≈ 2e^2/h. This so-called 0.5 anomaly occurs only for a specific interval of QPC width values, while it starts to get lost for too large sample widths. Furthermore, presented temperature and bias voltage dependent measurements insinuate that the emergence of the 0.5 anomaly is related to a gapped topological state. Additional characterization of this peculiar transport regime is provided by the realization of a novel device concept, which integrates a QPC within a standard Hall bar geometry. The results of the experimental analysis of such a sample link the occurrence of the 0.5 anomaly to a backscattered QSH channel. Thus, following a single particle perspective argumentation, it is reasoned that only one edge channel is transmitted in the context of the 0.5 anomaly. Two theoretic models possibly explaining the emergence of the 0.5 anomaly -- based on electron-electron interactions -- are discussed.
To conclude, the implementation of a working QPC technology in a QSH system represents a paramount development in the context of researching two-dimensional topological insulators and enables a multitude of future experiments. QPC devices realized in a QSH system are for example envisaged to allow for the detection of Majorana fermions and parafermions. Furthermore, the reported formation of a QSH interferometer state in appropriate QPC devices is of high interest. The observed dynamical Aharonov-Casher phase in the QSH regime enables a controllable modulation of the topological conductance, thus providing the conceptual basis for a topological transistor. Moreover, due to the resilience of geometric phases against dephasing, the presence of a spin-orbit Berry phase of π represents a promising perspective with regard to possible quantum computation concepts. Besides that, the transmission of only one QSH edge channel due to the emergence of the 0.5 anomaly is equivalent to 100 % spin polarization, which is an essential ingredient for realizing spintronic applications. Hence, the thesis at hand covers the experimental detection of three effects of fundamental importance in the context of developing new generations of logic devices -- based on QPCs fabricated from topological HgTe quantum wells.
In this work, a bridge was built between the so-far separate fields of spin defects and 2D systems: for the first time, an optically addressable spin defect (VB-) in a van der Waals material (hexagonal boron nitride) was identified and exploited. The results of this thesis are divided into three topics as follows:
1.) Identification of VB-:
In the scope of this chapter, the defect ,the negatively charged boron vacancy VB-, is identified and characterized. An initialization and readout of the spin state can be demonstrated optically at room temperature and its spin Hamiltonian contributions can be quantified.
2.) Coherent Control of VB-:
A coherent control is required for the defect to be utilized for quantum applications, which
Kavitäts-Exziton-Polaritonen (Polaritonen) sind hybride Quasiteilchen, die sich aufgrund starker Kopplung von Halbleiter-Exzitonen mit Kavitätsphotonen ausbilden. Diese Quasiteilchen weisen eine Reihe interessanter Eigenschaften auf, was sie einerseits für die Grundlagenforschung, andererseits auch für die Entwicklung neuartiger Bauteile sehr vielversprechend macht. Bei Erreichen einer ausreichend großen Teilchendichte geht das System in den Exziton-Polariton-Kondensationszustand über, was zur Emission von laserartigem Licht führt. Organische Halbleiter als aktives Emittermaterial zeigen in diesem Kontext großes Potential, da deren Exzitonen neben großen Oszillatorstärken auch hohe Bindungsenergien aufweisen. Deshalb ist es möglich, unter Verwendung organischer Halbleiter selbst bei Umgebungsbedingungen äußerst stabile Polaritonen zu erzeugen. Eine wichtige Voraussetzung zur Umsetzung von integrierten opto-elektronischen Bauteilen basierend auf Polaritonen ist der kontrollierte räumliche Einschluss sowie die Realisierung von frei konfigurierbaren Potentiallandschaften. Diese Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Entwicklung und der Untersuchung geeigneter Plattformen zur Erzeugung von Exziton-Polaritonen und Polaritonkondensaten in hemisphärischen Mikrokavitäten, in die organische Halbleiter eingebettet sind.
Spin- and \(k\)-resolved hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (HAXPES) is a powerful tool to probe bulk electronic properties of complex metal oxides. Due to the low efficiency of common spin detectors of about \(10^{-4}\), such experiments have been rarely performed within the hard X-ray regime since the notoriously low photoionization cross sections further lower the performance tremendously. This thesis is about a new type of spin detector, which employs an imaging spin-filter with multichannel electron recording. This increases the efficiency by a factor of \(10^4\) and makes spin- and \(k\)-resolved photoemission at high excitation energies possible. Two different technical approaches were pursued in this thesis: One using a hemispherical deflection analyzer (HDA) and a separate external spin detector chamber, the other one resorting to a momentum- or \(k\)-space microscope with time-of-flight (TOF) energy recording and an integrated spin-filter crystal. The latter exhibits significantly higher count rates and - since it was designed for this purpose from scratch - the integrated spin-filter option found out to be more viable than the subsequent upgrade of an existing setup with an HDA. This instrumental development is followed by the investigation of the complex metal oxides (CMOs) KTaO\(_3\) by angle-resolved HAXPES (HARPES) and Fe\(_3\)O\(_4\) by spin-resolved HAXPES (spin-HAXPES), respectively.
KTaO\(_3\) (KTO) is a band insulator with a valence-electron configuration of Ta 5\(d^0\). By angle- and spin-integrated HAXPES it is shown that at the buried interface of LaAlO\(_3\)/KTO - by the generation of oxygen vacancies and hence effective electron doping - a conducting electron system forms in KTO. Further investigations using the momentum-resolution of the \(k\)-space TOF microscope show that these states are confined to the surface in KTO and intensity is only obtained from the center or the Gamma-point of each Brillouin zone (BZ). These BZs are furthermore square-like arranged reflecting the three-dimensional cubic crystal structure of KTO. However, from a comparison to calculations it is found that the band structure deviates from that of electron-doped bulk KTaO\(_3\) due to the confinement to the interface.
There is broad consensus that Fe\(_3\)O\(_4\) is a promising material for spintronics applications due to its high degree of spin polarization at the Fermi level. However, previous attempts to measure the spin polarization by spin-resolved photoemission spectroscopy have been hampered by the use of low photon energies resulting in high surface sensitivity. The surfaces of magnetite, though, tend to reconstruct due to their polar nature, and thus their magnetic and electronic properties may strongly deviate from each other and from the bulk, dependent on their orientation and specific preparation. In this work, the intrinsic bulk spin polarization of magnetite at the Fermi level (\(E_F\)) by spin-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy, is determined by spin-HAXPES on (111)-oriented thin films, epitaxially grown on ZnO(0001) to be \(P(E_F) = -80^{+10}_{-20}\) %.
The fascination of microcavity exciton-polaritons (polaritons) rests upon the combination of advanced technological control over both the III-V semiconductor material platform as well as the precise spectroscopic access to polaritonic states, which provide access to the investigation of open questions and complex phenomena due to the inherent nonlinearity and direct spectroscopic observables such as energy-resolved real and Fourier space information, pseudospin and coherence. The focus of this work was to advance the research area of polariton lattice simulators with a particular emphasis on their lasing properties. Following the brief introduction into the fundamental physics of polariton lattices in chapter 2, important aspects of the sample fabrication as well as the Fourier spectroscopy techniques used to investigate various features of these lattices were summarized in chapter 3. Here, the implementation of a spatial light modulator for advanced excitation schemes was presented.
At the foundation of this work is the capability to confine polaritons into micropillars or microtraps resulting in discrete energy levels. By arranging these pillars or traps into various lattice geometries and ensuring coupling between neighbouring sites, polaritonic band structures were engineered. In chapter 4, the formation of a band structure was visualised in detail by investigating ribbons of honeycomb lattices. Here, the transition of the discrete energy levels of a single chain of microtraps to the fully developed band structure of a honeycomb lattice was observed. This study allows to design the size of individual domains in more complicated lattice geometries such that a description using band structures becomes feasible, as it revealed that a width of just six unit cells is sufficient to reproduce all characteristic features of the S band of a honeycomb lattice. In particular in the context of potential technological applications in the realms of lasing, the laser-like, coherent emission from polariton microcavities that can be achieved through the excitation of polariton condensates is intriguing. The condensation process is significantly altered in a lattice potential environment when compared to a planar microcavity. Therefore, an investigation of the polariton condensation process in a lattice with respect to the characteristics of the excitation laser, the exciton-photon detuning as well as the reduced trap distance that represents a key design parameter for polaritonic lattices was performed. Based on the demonstration of polariton condensation into multiple bands, the preferred condensation into a desired band was achieved by selecting the appropriate detuning. Additionally, a decreased condensation threshold in confined systems compared to a planar microcavity was revealed.
In chapter 5, the influence of the peculiar feature of flatbands arising in certain lattice geometries, such as the Lieb and Kagome lattices, on polaritons and polariton condensates was investigated. Deviations from a lattice simulator described by a tight binding model that is solely based on nearest neighbour coupling cause a remaining dispersiveness of the flatbands along certain directions of the Brillouin zone. Therefore, the influence of the reduced trap distance on the dispersiveness of the flatbands was investigated and precise technological control over the flatbands was demonstrated. As next-nearest neighbour coupling is reduced drastically by increasing the distance between the corresponding traps, increasing the reduced trap distance enables to tune the S flatbands of both Lieb and Kagome lattices from dispersive bands to flatbands with a bandwidth on the order of the polariton linewidth. Additionally to technological control over the band structures, the controlled excitation of large condensates, single compact localized state (CLS) condensates as well as the resonant excitation of polaritons in a Lieb flatband were demonstrated. Furthermore, selective condensation into flatbands was realised. This combination of technological and spectroscopic control illustrates the capabilities of polariton lattice simulators and was used to study the coherence of flatband polariton condensates. Here, the ability to tune the dispersiveness from a dispersive band to an almost perfect flatband in combination with the selectivity of the excitation is particularly valuable. By exciting large flatband condensates, the increasing degree of localisation to a CLS with decreasing dispersiveness was demonstrated by measurements of first order spatial coherence. Furthermore, the first order temporal coherence of CLS condensates was increased from τ = 68 ps for a dispersive flatband, a value typically achieved in high-quality microcavity samples, to a remarkable τ = 459 ps in a flatband with a dispersiveness below the polarion linewidth. Corresponding to this drastic increase of the first order coherence time, a decrease of the second order temporal coherence function from g(2)(τ =0) = 1.062 to g(2)(0) = 1.035 was observed. Next to laser-like, coherent emission, polariton condensates can form vortex lattices. In this work, two distinct vortex lattices that can form in polariton condensates in Kagome flatbands were revealed. Furthermore, chiral, superfluid edge transport was realised by breaking the spatial symmetry through a localised excitation spot. This chirality was related to a change in the vortex orientation at the edge of the lattice and thus opens the path towards further investigations of symmetry breaking and chiral superfluid transport in Kagome lattices.
Arguably the most influential concept in solid-state physics of the recent decades is the idea of topological order that has also provided a new degree of freedom to control the propagation of light. Therefore, in chapter 6, the interplay of topologically non-trivial band structures with polaritons, polariton condensates and lasing was emphasised. Firstly, a two-dimensional exciton-polariton topological insulator based on a honeycomb lattice was realised. Here, a topologically non-trivial band gap was opened at the Dirac points through a combination of TE-TM splitting of the photonic mode and Zeeman splitting of the excitonic mode. While the band gap is too small compared to the linewidth to be observed in the linear regime, the excitation of polariton condensates allowed to observe the characteristic, topologically protected, chiral edge modes that are robust against scattering at defects as well as lattice corners. This result represents a valuable step towards the investigation of non-linear and non-Hermitian topological physics, based on the inherent gain and loss of microcavities as well as the ability of polaritons to interact with each other. Apart from fundamental interest, the field of topological photonics is driven by the search of potential technological applications, where one direction is to advance the development of lasers. In this work, the starting point towards studying topological lasing was the Su-Schrieffer-Heeger (SSH) model, since it combines a simple and well-understood geometry with a large topological gap. The coherence properties of the topological edge defect of an SSH chain was studied in detail, revealing a promising degree of second order temporal coherence of g(2)(0) = 1.07 for a microlaser with a diameter of only d = 3.5 µm. In the context of topological lasing, the idea of using a propagating, topologically protected mode to ensure coherent coupling of laser arrays is particularly promising. Here, a topologically non-trivial interface mode between the two distinct domains of the crystalline topological insulator (CTI) was realised. After establishing selective lasing from this mode, the coherence properties were studied and coherence of a full, hexagonal interface comprised of 30 vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) was demonstrated. This result thus represents the first demonstration of a topological insulator VCSEL array, combining the compact size and convenient light collection of vertically emitting lasers with an in-plane topological protection.
Finally, in chapter 7, an approach towards engineering the band structures of Lieb and honeycomb lattices by unbalancing the eigenenergies of the sites within each unit cell was presented. For Lieb lattices, this technique opens up a path towards controlling the coupling of a flatband to dispersive bands and could enable a detailed study of the influence of this coupling on the polariton flatband states. In an unbalanced honeycomb lattice, a quantum valley Hall boundary mode between two distinct, unbalanced honeycomb domains with permuted sites in the unit cells was demonstrated. This boundary mode could serve as the foundation for the realisation of a polariton quantum valley Hall effect with a truly topologically protected spin based on vortex charges. Modifying polariton lattices by unbalancing the eigenenergies of the sites that comprise a unit cell was thus identified as an additional, promising path for the future development of polariton lattice simulators.
Verlustarmer Ladungsträgertransport ist für die Realisierung effizienter und kleiner elektronischer Bauteile von großem Interesse. Dies hilft entstehende Wärme zu minimieren und den Energieverbrauch gleichzeitig zu reduzieren. Einzelne Streuprozesse, die den Verlust bei Ladungsträgertransport bestimmen, laufen jedoch auf Längenskalen von Nano- bis Mikrometern ab. Um diese detailliert untersuchen zu können, bedarf es Messmethoden mit hoher zeitlicher oder örtlicher Auflösung. Für Letztere gibt es wenige etablierte Experimente, häufig basierend auf der Rastertunnelmikroskopie, welche jedoch verschiedenen Einschränkungen unterliegen. Um die Möglichkeiten der Detektion von Ladungsträgertransport auf Distanzen der mittleren freien Weglänge und damit im ballistischen Regime zu verbessern, wurde im Rahmen dieser Dissertation die Molekulare Nanosonde charakterisiert und etabliert. Diese Messmethode nutzt ein einzelnes Molekül als Detektor für Ladungsträger, welche mit der Sondenspitze des Rastertunnelmikroskops (RTM) wenige Nanometer entfernt vom Molekül in das untersuchte Substrat injiziert werden. Die hohe Auflösung des RTM in Kombination mit der geringen Ausdehnung des molekularen Detektors ermöglicht dabei atomare Kontrolle von Transportpfaden über wenige Nanometer. Der erste Teil dieser Arbeit widmet sich der Charakterisierung der Molekularen Nanosonde. Hierfür werden zunächst die elektronischen Eigenschaften dreier Phthalocyanine mittels Rastertunnelspektroskpie untersucht, welche im Folgenden zur Charakterisierung des Moleküls als Detektor Anwendung finden. Die anschließende Analyse der Potentiallandschaft der Tautomerisation von H2Pc und HPc zeigt, dass die NH- Streckschwinung einem effizienten Schaltprozess zu Grunde liegt. Darauf basierend wird der Einfluss der Umgebung anhand von einzelnen Adatomen sowie des Substrats selbst auf den molekularen Schalter analysiert. In beiden Fällen zeigt sich eine signifikante Änderung der Potentiallandschaft der Tautomerisation. Anschließend wird der Einfluss geometrischer Eigenschaften des Moleküls selbst untersucht, wobei sich eine Entkopplung vom Substrat auf Grund von dreidimensionalen tert-Butyl-Substituenten ergibt. Zusätzlich zeigt sich bei dem Vergleich von Naphthalocyanin zu Phthalocyanin der Einfluss lateraler Ausdehnung auf die Detektionsfläche, was einen nicht-punktförmigen Detektor bestätigt. Im letzten Abschnitt werden zwei Anwendungen der Molekularen Nanosonde präsentiert. Zunächst wird mit Phthalocyanin auf Ag(111) demonstriert, dass die Interferenz von ballistischen Ladungsträgern auf Distanzen von wenigen Nanometern mit dieser Technik detektierbar ist. Im zweiten Teil zeigt sich, dass der ballistische Transport auf einer Pd(110)-Oberfläche durch die anisotrope Reihenstruktur auf atomarer Skala moduliert wird.
Over the last two decades, accompanied by their prediction and ensuing realization, topological non-trivial materials like topological insulators, Dirac semimetals, and Weyl semimetals have been in the focus of mesoscopic condensed matter research. While hosting a plethora of intriguing physical phenomena all on their own, even more fascinating features emerge when superconducting order is included. Their intrinsically pronounced spin-orbit coupling leads to peculiar, time-reversal symmetry protected surface states, unconventional superconductivity, and even to the emergence of exotic bound states in appropriate setups.
This Thesis explores various junctions built from - or incorporating - topological materials in contact with superconducting order, placing particular emphasis on the transport properties and the proximity effect.
We begin with the analysis of Josephson junctions where planar samples of mercury telluride are sandwiched between conventional superconducting contacts. The surprising observation of pronounced excess currents in experiments, which can be well described by the Blonder-Tinkham-Klapwijk theory, has long been an ambiguous issue in this field, since the necessary presumptions are seemingly not met. We propose a resolution to this predicament by demonstrating that the interface properties in hybrid nanostructures of distinctly different materials yet corroborate these assumptions and explain the outcome. An experimental realization is feasible by gating the contacts. We then proceed with NSN junctions based on time-reversal symmetry broken Weyl semimetals and including superconducting order. Due to the anisotropy of the electron band structure, both the transport properties as well as the proximity effect depend substantially on the orientation of the interfaces between the materials. Moreover, an imbalance can be induced in the electron population between Weyl nodes of opposite chirality, resulting in a non-vanishing spin polarization of the Cooper pairs leaking into the normal contacts. We show that such a system features a tunable dipole character with possible applications in spintronics. Finally, we consider partially superconducting surface states of three-dimensional topological insulators. Tuning such a system into the so-called bipolar setup, this results in the formation of equal-spin Cooper pairs inside the superconductor, while simultaneously acting as a filter for non-local singlet pairing. The creation and manipulation of these spin-polarized Cooper pairs can be achieved by mere electronic switching processes and in the absence of any magnetic order, rendering such a nanostructure an interesting system for superconducting spintronics. The inherent spin-orbit coupling of the surface state is crucial for this observation, as is the bipolar setup which strongly promotes non-local Andreev processes.
We employ the AdS/CFT correspondence and hydrodynamics to analyze the transport properties of \(2+1\) dimensional electron fluids. In this way, we use theoretical methods from both condensed matter and high-energy physics to derive tangible predictions that are directly verifiable in experiment.
The first research topic we consider is strongly-coupled electron fluids. Motivated by early results by Gurzhi on the transport properties of weakly coupled fluids, we consider whether similar properties are manifest in strongly coupled fluids. More specifically, we focus on the hydrodynamic tail of the Gurzhi effect: A decrease in fluid resistance with increasing temperature due to the formation of a Poiseuille flow of electrons in the sample. We show that the hydrodynamic tail of the Gurzhi effect is also realized in strongly coupled and fully relativistic fluids, but with modified quantitative features. Namely, strongly-coupled fluids always exhibit a smaller resistance than weakly coupled ones and are, thus, far more efficient conductors. We also suggest that the coupling dependence of the resistance can be used to measure the coupling strength of the fluid. In view of these measurements, we provide analytical results for the resistance as a function of the shear viscosity over entropy density \(\eta/s\) of the fluid. \(\eta/s\) is itself a known function of the coupling strength in the weak and infinite coupling limits.
In further analysis for strongly-coupled fluids, we propose a novel strongly coupled Dirac material based on a kagome lattice, Scandium-substituted Herbertsmithite (ScHb). The large coupling strength of this material, as well as its Dirac nature, provides us with theoretical and experimental access to non-perturbative relativistic and quantum critical physics. A highly suitable method for analyzing such a material's transport properties is the AdS/CFT correspondence. Concretely, using AdS/CFT we derive an estimate for ScHb's \(\eta/s\) and show that it takes a value much smaller than that observed in weakly coupled materials. In turn, the smallness of \(\eta/s\) implies that ScHb's Reynolds number, \(Re\), is large. In fact, \(Re\) is large enough for turbulence, the most prevalent feature of fluids in nature, to make its appearance for the first time in electronic fluids.
Switching gears, we proceed to the second research topic considered in this thesis: Weakly coupled parity-breaking electron fluids. More precisely, we analyze the quantitative and qualitative changes to the classical Hall effect, for electrons propagating hydrodynamically in a lead. Apart from the Lorentz force, a parity-breaking fluid's motion is also impacted by the Hall-viscous force; the shear-stress force induced by the Hall-viscosity. We show that the interplay of these two forces leads to a hydrodynamic Hall voltage with non-linear dependence on the magnetic field. More importantly, the Lorentz and Hall-viscous forces become equal at a non-vanishing magnetic field, leading to a trivial hydrodynamic Hall voltage. Moreover, for small magnetic fields we provide analytic results for the dependence of the hydrodynamic Hall voltage on all experimentally-tuned parameters of our simulations, such as temperature and density. These dependences, along with the zero of the hydrodynamic Hall voltage, are distinct features of hydrodynamic transport and can be used to verify our predictions in experiments.
Last but not least, we consider how a distinctly electronic property, spin, can be included into the hydrodynamic framework. In particular, we construct an effective action for non-dissipative spin hydrodynamics up to first order in a suitably defined derivative expansion. We also show that interesting spin-transport effects appear at second order in the derivative expansion. Namely, we show that the fluid's rotation polarizes its spin. This is the hydrodynamic manifestation of the Barnett effect and provides us with an example of hydrodynamic spintronics.
To conclude this thesis, we discuss several possible extensions of our research, as well as proposals for research in related directions.
The main goal of this thesis is to elucidate the sense in which recent experimental progress in condensed matter physics, namely the verification of two-dimensional Dirac-like materials and their control in ballistic- as well as hydrodynamic transport experiments enables the observation of a well-known 'high-energy' phenomenon: The parity anomaly of planar quantum electrodynamics (QED\(_{2+1}\)). In a nutshell, the low-energy physics of two-dimensional Quantum Anomalous Hall (QAH) insulators like (Hg,Mn)Te quantum wells or magnetically doped (Bi,Sb)Te thin films can be described by the combined response of two 2+1 space-time dimensional Chern insulators with a linear dispersion in momentum. Due to their Dirac-like spectra, each of those Chern insulators is directly related to the parity anomaly of planar quantum electrodynamics. However, in contrast to a pure QED\(_{2+1}\) system, the Lagrangian of each Chern insulator is described by two different mass terms: A conventional momentum-independent Dirac mass \(m\), as well as a momentum-dependent so-called Newtonian mass term \(B \vert \mathbf{k} \vert^2\). According to the parity anomaly it is not possible to well-define a parity- and U(1) gauge invariant quantum system in 2+1 space-time dimensions. More precisely, starting with a parity symmetric theory at the classical level, insisting on gauge-invariance at the quantum level necessarily induces parity-odd terms in the calculation of the quantum effective action. The role of the Dirac mass term in the calculation of the effective QED\(_{2+1}\) action has been initially studied in Phys. Rev. Lett. 51, 2077 (1983). Even in the presence of a Dirac mass, the associated fermion determinant diverges and lacks gauge invariance. This requires a proper regularization/renormalizaiton scheme and, as such, transfers the peculiarities of the parity anomaly to the massive case.
In the scope of this thesis, we connect the momentum-dependent Newtonian mass term of a Chern insulator to the parity anomaly. In particular, we reveal, that in the calculation of the effective action, before renormalization, the Newtonian mass term acts similarly to a parity-breaking element of a high-energy regularization scheme. This calculation allows us to derive the finite frequency correction to the DC Hall conductivity of a QAH insulator. We derive that the leading order AC correction contains a term proportional to the Chern number. This term originates from the Newtonian mass and can be measured via electrical or via magneto-optical experiments. The Newtonian mass, in particular, significantly changes the resonance structure of the AC Hall conductivity in comparison to pure Dirac systems like graphene.
In addition, we study the effective action of the aforementioned Chern insulators in external out-of-plane magnetic fields. We show that as a consequence of the parity anomaly the QAH phase in (Hg,Mn)Te quantum wells or in magnetically doped (Bi,Sb)Te thin films survives in out-of-plane magnetic fields, violates the Onsager relation, and can therefore be distinguished from a conventional quantum Hall (QH) response. As a smoking-gun of the QAH phase in increasing magnetic fields, we predict a transition from a quantized Hall plateau with \(\sigma_\mathrm{xy}= -\mathrm{e}^2/\mathrm{h}\) to a not perfectly quantized plateau which is caused by scattering processes between counter-propagating QH and QAH edge states. This transition is expected to be of significant relevance in paramagnetic QAH insulators like (Hg,Mn)Te/CdTe quantum wells, in which the exchange interaction competes against the out-of-plane magnetic field.
All of the aforementioned results do not incorporate finite temperature effects. In order to shed light on such phenomena, we further analyze the finite temperature Hall response of 2+1 dimensional Chern insulators under the combined influence of a chemical potential and an out-of-plane magnetic field. As we have mentioned above, this non-dissipative transport coefficient is directly related to the parity anomaly of planar quantum electrodynamics. Within the scope of our analysis we show that the parity anomaly itself is not renormalized by finite temperature effects. However, the parity anomaly induces two terms of different physical origin in the effective Chern-Simons action of a QAH insulator, which are directly proportional to its Hall conductivity. The first term is temperature and chemical potential independent and solely encodes the intrinsic topological response. The second term specifies the non-topological thermal response of conduction- and valence band modes, respectively. We show that the relativistic mass \(m\) of a Chern insulator counteracts finite temperature effects, whereas its non-relativistic Newtonian mass \(B \vert \mathbf{k} \vert^2 \) enhances these corrections. In addition, we are extending our associated analysis to finite out-of-plane magnetic fields, and relate the thermal response of a Chern insulator therein to the spectral asymmetry, which is a measure of the parity anomaly in out-of-plane magnetic fields.
In the second part of this thesis, we study the hydrodynamic properties of two-dimensional electron systems with a broken time-reversal and parity symmetry. Within this analysis we are mainly focusing on the non-dissipative transport features originating from a peculiar hydrodynamic transport coefficient: The Hall viscosity \(\eta_\mathrm{H}\). In out-of-plane magnetic fields, the Hall viscous force directly competes with the Lorentz force, as both mechanisms contribute to the overall Hall voltage. In our theoretical considerations, we present a way of uniquely distinguishing these two contributions in a two-dimensional channel geometry by calculating their functional dependencies on all external parameters. We are in particular deriving that the ratio of the Hall viscous contribution to the Lorentz force contribution is negative and that its absolute value decreases with an increasing width, slip-length and carrier density. Instead, it increases with the electron-electron mean free path in the channel geometry considered. We show that in typical materials such as GaAs the Hall viscous contribution can dominate the Lorentz signal up to a few tens of millitesla until the total Hall voltage vanishes and eventually is exceeded by the Lorentz contribution. Last but not least, we derive that the total Hall electric field has a parabolic form originating from Lorentz effects. Most remarkably, the offset of this parabola is directly characterized by the Hall viscosity. Therefore, in summary, our results pave the way to measure and to identify the Hall viscosity via both global and local measurements of the entire Hall voltage.
The subject of this thesis is the fabrication and characterization of magnetic topological
insulator layers of (V,Bi,Sb)\(_2\)Te\(_3\) exhibiting the quantum anomalous Hall
effect. A major task was the experimental realization of the quantum anomalous
Hall effect, which is only observed in layers with very specific structural,
electronic and magnetic properties. These properties and their influence on the
quantum anomalous Hall effect are analyzed in detail.
First, the optimal conditions for the growth of pure Bi\(_2\)Te\(_3\) and Sb\(_2\)Te\(_3\) crystal
layers and the resulting structural quality are studied. The crystalline quality of
Bi\(_2\)Te\(_3\) improves significantly at higher growth temperatures resulting in a small
mosaicity-tilt and reduced twinning defects. The optimal growth temperature is
determined as 260\(^{\circ}\)C, low enough to avoid desorption while maintaining a high
crystalline quality.
The crystalline quality of Sb\(_2\)Te\(_3\) is less dependent on the growth temperature.
Temperatures below 230\(^{\circ}\)C are necessary to avoid significant material desorption,
though. Especially for the nucleation on Si(111)-H, a low sticking coefficient is
observed preventing the coalescence of islands into a homogeneous layer.
The influence of the substrate type, miscut and annealing sequence on the growth
of Bi\(_2\)Te\(_3\) layers is investigated. The alignment of the layer changes depending on
the miscut angle and annealing sequence: Typically, layer planes align parallel to
the Si(111) planes. This can enhance the twin suppression due to transfer of the
stacking order from the substrate to the layer at step edges, but results in a step
bunched layer morphology. For specific substrate preparations, however, the layer
planes are observed to align parallel to the surface plane. This alignment avoids
displacement at the step edges, which would cause anti-phase domains. This results
in narrow Bragg peaks in XRD rocking curve scans due to long-range order in
the absence of anti-phase domains. Furthermore, the use of rough Fe:InP(111):B
substrates leads to a strong reduction of twinning defects and a significantly reduced
mosaicity-twist due to the smaller lattice mismatch.
Next, the magnetically doped mixed compound V\(_z\)(Bi\(_{1−x}\)Sb\(_x\))\(_{2−z}\)Te\(_3\) is studied in
order to realize the quantum anomalous Hall effect. The addition of V and Bi to
Sb\(_2\)Te\(_3\) leads to efficient nucleation on the Si(111)-H surface and a closed, homogeneous
layer. Magneto-transport measurements of layers reveal a finite anomalous
Hall resistivity significantly below the von Klitzing constant. The observation of
the quantum anomalous Hall effect requires the complete suppression of parasitic
bulklike conduction due to defect induced carriers. This can be achieved by optimizing
the thickness, composition and growth conditions of the layers.
The growth temperature is observed to strongly influence the structural quality.
Elevated temperatures result in bigger islands, improved crystallographic orientation
and reduced twinning. On the other hand, desorption of primarily Sb is
observed, affecting the thickness, composition and reproducibility of the layers.
At 190\(^{\circ}\)C, desorption is avoided enabling precise control of layer thickness and
composition of the quaternary compound while maintaining a high structural
quality.
It is especially important to optimize the Bi/Sb ratio in the (V,Bi,Sb)\(_2\)Te\(_3\) layers,
since by alloying n-type Bi\(_2\)Te\(_3\) and p-type Sb\(_2\)Te\(_3\) charge neutrality is achieved at
a specific mixing ratio. This is necessary to shift the Fermi level into the magnetic
exchange gap and fully suppress the bulk conduction. The Sb content x furthermore
influences the in-plane lattice constant a significantly. This is utilized to
accurately determine x even for thin films below 10 nm thickness required for the
quantum anomalous Hall effect. Furthermore, x strongly influences the surface
morphology: with increasing x the island size decreases and the RMS roughness
increases by up to a factor of 4 between x = 0 and x = 1.
A series of samples with x varied between 0.56-0.95 is grown, while carefully
maintaining a constant thickness of 9 nm and a doping concentration of 2 at.% V.
Magneto-transport measurements reveal the charge neutral point around x = 0.86
at 4.2 K. The maximum of the anomalous Hall resistivity of 0.44 h/e\(^2\) is observed
at x = 0.77 close to charge neutrality. Reducing the measurement temperature
to 50 mK significantly increases the anomalous Hall resistivity. Several samples
in a narrow range of x between 0.76-0.79 show the quantum anomalous Hall effect
with the Hall resistivity reaching the von Klitzing constant and a vanishing
longitudinal resistivity. Having realized the quantum anomalous Hall effect as the
first group in Europe, this breakthrough enabled us to study the electronic and
magnetic properties of the samples in close collaborations with other groups.
In collaboration with the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt high-precision
measurements were conducted with detailed error analysis yielding a relative de-
viation from the von Klitzing constant of (0.17 \(\pm\) 0.25) * 10\(^{−6}\). This is published
as the smallest, most precise value at that time, proving the high quality of the
provided samples. This result paves the way for the application of magnetic topological
insulators as zero-field resistance standards.
Non-local magneto-transport measurements were conducted at 15 mK in close
collaboration with the transport group in EP3. The results prove that transport
happens through chiral edge channels. The detailed analysis of small anomalies in
transport measurements reveals instabilities in the magnetic phase even at 15 mK.
Their time dependent nature indicates the presence of superparamagnetic contributions
in the nominally ferromagnetic phase.
Next, the influence of the capping layer and the substrate type on structural properties
and the impact on the quantum anomalous Hall effect is investigated. To
this end, a layer was grown on a semi-insulating Fe:InP(111)B substrate using the
previously optimized growth conditions. The crystalline quality is improved significantly
with the mosaicity twist reduced from 5.4\(^{\circ}\) to 1.0\(^{\circ}\). Furthermore, a layer
without protective capping layer was grown on Si and studied after providing sufficient
time for degradation. The uncapped layer on Si shows perfect quantization,
while the layer on InP deviates by about 5%. This may be caused by the higher
crystalline quality, but variations in e.g. Sb content cannot be ruled out as the
cause. Overall, the quantum anomalous Hall effect seems robust against changes
in substrate and capping layer with only little deviations.
Furthermore, the dependence of the quantum anomalous Hall effect on the thickness
of the layers is investigated. Between 5-8 nm thickness the material typically
transitions from a 2D topological insulator with hybridized top and bottom surface
states to a 3D topological insulator. A set of samples with 6 nm, 8 nm, and
9 nm thickness exhibits the quantum anomalous Hall effect, while 5 nm and 15 nm
thick layers show significant bulk contributions. The analysis of the longitudinal
and Hall conductivity during the reversal of magnetization reveals distinct differences
between different thicknesses. The 6 nm thick layer shows scaling consistent
with the integer quantum Hall effect, while the 9 nm thick layer shows scaling expected
for the topological surface states of a 3D topological insulator. The unique
scaling of the 9 nm thick layer is of particular interest as it may be a result of
axion electrodynamics in a 3D topological insulator.
Subsequently, the influence of V doping on the structural and magnetic properties
of the host material is studied systematically. Similarly to Bi alloying, increased
V doping seems to flatten the layer surface significantly. With increasing V content,
Te bonding partners are observed to increase simultaneously in a 2:3 ratio
as expected for V incorporation on group-V sites. The linear contraction of the
in-plane and out-of-plane lattice constants with increasing V doping is quantitatively
consistent with the incorporation of V\(^{3+}\) ions, possibly mixed with V\(^{4+}\)
ions, at the group-V sites. This is consistent with SQUID measurements showing
a magnetization of 1.3 \(\mu_B\) per V ion.
Finally, magnetically doped topological insulator heterostructures are fabricated
and studied in magneto-transport. Trilayer heterostructures with a non-magnetic
(Bi,Sb)\(_2\)Te\(_3\) layer sandwiched between two magnetically doped layers are predicted
to host the axion insulator state if the two magnetic layers are decoupled and in
antiparallel configuration. Magneto-transport measurements of such a trilayer heterostructure
with 7 nm undoped (Bi,Sb)\(_2\)Te\(_3\) between 2 nm thick layers doped with
1.5 at.% V exhibit a zero Hall plateau representing an insulating state. Similar results
in the literature were interpreted as axion insulator state, but in the absence
of a measurement showing the antiparallel magnetic orientation other explanations
for the insulating state cannot be ruled out.
Furthermore, heterostructures including a 2 nm thin, highly V doped layer region
show an anomalous Hall effect of opposite sign compared to previous samples. A
dependency on the thickness and position of the doped layer region is observed,
which indicates that scattering at the interfaces causes contributions to the anomalous
Hall effect of opposite sign compared to bulk scattering effects.
Many interesting phenomena in quantum anomalous Hall insulators as well as axion
insulators are still not unambiguously observed. This includes Majorana bound
states in quantum anomalous Hall insulator/superconductor hybrid systems and
the topological magneto-electric effect in axion insulators. The limited observation
temperature of the quantum anomalous Hall effect of below 1 K could be increased
in 3D topological insulator/magnetic insulator heterostructures which utilize the
magnetic proximity effect.
The main achievement of this thesis is the reproducible growth and characterization
of (V,Bi,Sb)2Te3 layers exhibiting the quantum anomalous Hall effect. The
detailed study of the structural requirements of the quantum anomalous Hall effect
and the observation of the unique axionic scaling behavior in 3D magnetic
topological insulator layers leads to a better understanding of the nature of this
new quantum state. The high-precision measurements of the quantum anomalous
Hall effect reporting the smallest deviation from the von Klitzing constant
are an important step towards the realization of a zero-field quantum resistance
standard.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden die strukturellen und magnetischen Eigenschaften verschiedener 3d-Übergangsmetalloxidketten (TMO-Ketten) auf Ir(001) und Pt(001) untersucht. Diese weisen eine (3 × 1) Struktur mit periodisch angeordneten Ketten auf, die nur über die Sauerstoffbindung an das Substrat gekoppelt sind. Während die Struktur durch experimentelle und theoretische Untersuchungen bestätigt ist, liegen für die magnetischen Eigenschaften ausschließlich Rechnungen vor. Zur Überprüfung dieser theoretischen Vorhersagen wird die Methode der spinpolarisierten Rastertunnelmikroskopie (SP-STM) verwendet, die die Abbildung der magnetischen Ordnung mit atomarer Auflösung erlaubt.
Die Untersuchungen beginnen mit der Vorstellung der Ir(001) Oberfläche, die eine (5 × 1) Rekonstruktion aufweist. Eine Aufhebung dieser Rekonstruktion erreicht man durch das Heizen des Ir-Substrats in Sauerstoffatmosphäre unter Bildung einer (2 × 1) Sauerstoffrekonstruktion. Die Qualität der Oberfläche hängt dabei von der Wachstumstemperatur T und dem verwendeten Sauerstoffdruck pOx ab. Die bei T = 550°C und pOx = 1 × 10^−8 mbar hergestellte Sauerstoffrektonstruktion dient als Ausgangspunkt für die folgenden Präparationen von CoO2, FeO2 und MnO2-Ketten. Dazu wird jeweils eine drittel Monolage (ML) des Übergangsmetalls auf die Oberfläche des Substrates gedampft und die Probe unter Sauerstoffatmosphäre ein weiteres Mal geheizt. Auf diese Weise kann die (3 × 1) Struktur der bekannten Ketten bestätigt und die Gruppe der TMO-Ketten um die CrO2-Ketten erweitert werden.
In der einschlägigen Fachliteratur wurden Vorhersagen bezüglich der magnetischen Struktur der TMO-Ketten publiziert, wonach entlang und zwischen CoO2-Ketten eine ferromagnetische (FM) und für FeO2 und MnO2-Ketten eine antiferromagnetische (AFM-) Kopplung vorliegt.Während die Überprüfung dieser Vorhersagen mit SP-STM für CoO2 und CrO2-Ketten keine Hinweise auf magnetische Strukturen liefert, liegen bei FeO2 und MnO2-Ketten unterschiedliche magnetische Phasen vor. In der Tat kann
mit den experimentell gefundenen Einheitszellen die AFM-Kopplung entlang beider Ketten bestätigt werden. Im Gegensatz widersprechen die Kopplungen zwischen den Ketten den Berechnungen. Bei FeO2-Ketten liegt eine stabile FM Ordnung vor, die zu einer magnetischen (3 × 2) Einheitszelle mit einer leichten Magnetisierung in Richtung der Oberflächennormalen führt (out-of-plane). Die MnO2-Ketten weichen ebenfalls von der berechneten magnetischen kollinearen Ordnung zwischen benachbarten Ketten ab und zeigen eine chirale Struktur. Durch die Rotation der Mn-Spins um 120° in der Probenebenen (in-plane) entsteht eine magnetische (9 × 2) Einheitszelle, deren Periode durch neue DFT-Rechnungen bestätigt wird. Nach diesen Berechnungen handelt es sich um eine Spinspirale, die durch die Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya (DM-) Wechselwirkung bei einem Energiegewinn von 0,3 meV pro Mn-Atom gegenüber den kollinearen FM Zustand stabilisiert wird. Diese wird ähnlich wie bei bereits publizierten Clustern und Adatomen auf Pt(111) durch die Rudermann-Kittel-Kasuya-Yosida (RKKY-) Wechselwirkung vermittelt und erklärt den experimentell gefundenen einheitlichen Drehsinn der Spiralen.
Die RKKY-Wechselwirkung zeigt eine starke Abhängigkeit von der Fermi-Oberfläche des Substrats. Im folgenden Kapitel werden deshalb mit TMO-Ketten auf Pt(001) die strukturellen und magnetischen Eigenschaften auf einem weiteren Substrat analysiert, wobei zum Zeitpunkt der Arbeit nur die Existenz der CoO2-Ketten aus der Literatur bekannt war. Vergleichbar mit Ir(001) besitzt auch Pt(001) eine rekonstruierte Oberfläche, die sich aber stabil gegenüber Oxidation zeigt. Dadurch muss die drittel ML des Übergangsmetalls direkt auf die Rekonstruktion aufgedampft werden. Das Wachstum des Übergangsmetalls ist dabei von der Temperatur des Substrats abhängig und beeinflusst
das Ergebnis der nachfolgenden Oxidation. Diese erfolgt analog zum Wachstum der Ketten auf Ir(001) durch das Heizen der Probe in Sauerstoffatmosphäre und resultiert nur für das Aufdampfen des Übergangsmetalls auf kalte Pt(001) Oberflächen in Ketten mit der Periode von 3aPt. Auf diese Weise kann nicht nur die (3 × 1) Struktur der CoO2-Ketten bestätigt werden, sondern auch durch atomare Auflösung die Gruppe der TMO-Ketten um MnO2-Ketten auf Pt(001) erweitert werden. Im Gegensatz dazu sind die nicht magnetischen Messungen im Fall von Fe nicht eindeutig. Zwar liegen
auch hier Ketten im Abstand des dreifachen Pt Gittervektors vor, trotzdem ist die (3 × 1) Struktur nicht nachweisbar. Dies liegt an einer Korrugation mit einer Periode von 2aPt entlang der Ketten, was ein Hinweis auf eine Peierls Instabilität sein kann.
Entsprechend dem Vorgehen für Ir(001) werden für die TMO-Ketten auf Pt(001) SP-STM Messungen durchgeführt und die Vorhersage einer AFM-Kopplung für CoO2-Ketten überprüft. Auch hier können, wie im Fall von CoO2-Ketten und im Widerspruch zur Vorhersage, für beide Polarisationsrichtungen der Spitze keine magnetischen Strukturen gefunden werden. Darüber hinaus verhalten sich die MnO2-Ketten auf Pt(001) mit ihrer chiralen magnetischen Struktur ähnlich zu denen auf Ir(001). Dies bestätigt die Annahme einer indirekten DM-Wechselwirkung, wobei durch die 72° Rotation der Mn-Spins eine längere Periode der zykloidalen Spinspirale festgestellt wird. Die Erklärung dafür liegt in der Abhängigkeit der RKKY-Wechselwirkung vom Fermi-Wellenvektor des Substrats, während sich die DM-Wechselwirkung beim Übergang von Ir zu Pt nur wenig ändert.
Space- and time-resolved UV-to-NIR surface spectroscopy and 2D nanoscopy at 1 MHz repetition rate
(2019)
We describe a setup for time-resolved photoemission electron microscopy (TRPEEM) with aberration correction enabling 3 nm spatial resolution and sub-20 fs temporal resolution. The latter is realized by our development of a widely tunable (215–970 nm) noncollinear optical parametric amplifier (NOPA) at 1 MHz repetition rate. We discuss several exemplary applications. Efficient photoemission from plasmonic Au nanoresonators is investigated with phase-coherent pulse pairs from an actively stabilized interferometer. More complex excitation fields are created with a liquid-crystal-based pulse shaper enabling amplitude and phase shaping of NOPA pulses with spectral components from 600 to 800 nm. With this system we demonstrate spectroscopy within a single plasmonic nanoslit resonator by spectral amplitude shaping and investigate the local field dynamics with coherent two-dimensional (2D) spectroscopy at the nanometer length scale (“2D nanoscopy”). We show that the local response varies across a distance as small as 33 nm in our sample. Further, we report two-color pump–probe experiments using two independent NOPA beamlines. We extract local variations of the excited-state dynamics of a monolayered 2D material (WSe2) that we correlate with low-energy electron microscopy (LEEM) and reflectivity (LEER) measurements. Finally, we demonstrate the in-situ sample preparation capabilities for organic thin films and their characterization via spatially resolved electron diffraction and dark-field LEEM.
Topologische Isolatoren gehören zu einer Klasse von Materialien, an deren Realisation im Rahmen der zweiten quantenmechanischen Revolution gearbeitet wird. Einerseits sind zahlreiche Fragestellungen zu diesen Materialen und deren Nutzbarmachung noch nicht beantwortet, andererseits treiben vielversprechende Anwendungen im Feld der Quantencomputer und Spintronik die Lösung dieser Fragen voran. Topologische Rand- bzw. Oberflächenzustände wurden für unterschiedlichste Materialien und Strukturen theoretisch vorhergesagt, so auch für GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilme und Bi2Se3. Trotz intensiver Forschungsarbeiten und großer Fortschritte bedürfen viele Prozesse v. a. im Bereich der Probenherstellung und Verarbeitung noch der Optimierung. Die vorliegende Arbeit präsentiert Ergebnisse zur Molekularstahlepitaxie, zur Probenfertigung sowie zu elektro-optisch modulierter Transportuntersuchung von GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilmen und der epitaktischen Fertigung von Bi2Se3 Nanostrukturen.
Im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit werden die Parameter zur Molekularstrahlepitaxie sowie die Anpassung der Probenfertigung von GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilmen an material- und untersuchungsbedingte Notwendigkeiten beschrieben. Dieser verbesserte Prozess ermöglicht die Fertigung quantitativ vergleichbarer Probenserien. Anschließend werden Ergebnisse für Strukturen mit variabler InAs Schichtdicke unter elektrostatischer Kontrolle mit einem Frontgate präsentiert. Auch mit verbessertem Prozess zeigten sich Leckströme zum Substrat. Diese erschweren eine elektrostatische Kontrolle über Backgates. Die erstmals durch optische Anregung präsentierte Manipulation der Ladungsträgerart sowie des Phasenzustandes in GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilmen bietet eine Alternative zu problembehafteten elektrostatisch betriebenen Gates.
Im zweiten Teil wird die epitaktische Herstellung von Bi2Se3 Nanostrukturen gezeigt. Mit dem Ziel, Vorteile aus dem erhöhten Oberfläche-zu-Volumen Verhältnis zu ziehen, wurden im Rahmen dieser Arbeit erstmals Bi2Se3 Nanodrähte und -flocken mittels Molekularstrahlepitaxie für die Verwendung als topologischer Isolator hergestellt.
Ein Quantensprung – Kapitel 1 führt über die umgangssprachliche Wortbedeutung des Quantensprungs und des damit verbundenen Modells der Quantenmechanik in das Thema. Die Anwendung dieses Modells auf Quanten-Ensembles und dessen technische Realisation wird heute als erste Quantenmechanische Revolution bezeichnet und ist aus unserem Alltag nicht mehr wegzudenken. Im Rahmen der zweiten Quantenmechanischen Revolution soll nun die Anwendung auf einzelne Zustände realisiert und technisch nutzbar gemacht werden. Hierbei sind topologische Isolatoren ein vielversprechender Baustein. Es werden das Konzept des topologischen Isolators sowie die Eigenschaften der beiden in dieser Arbeit betrachteten Systeme beschrieben: GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilme und Bi2Se3 Nanostrukturen.
GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilme
Kapitel 2 beschreibt die notwendigen physikalischen und technischen Grundlagen. Ausgehend von der Entdeckung des Hall-Effekts 1879 werden die Quanten-Hall-Effekte eingeführt. Quanten-Spin-Hall-Isolatoren oder allgemeiner topologische Isolatoren sind Materialien mit einem isolierenden Inneren, weisen an der Oberfläche aber topologisch geschützte Zustände auf. Doppelquantenfilme aus GaSb/InAs, die in AlSb gebettet werden, weisen – abhängig vom Aufbau der Heterostruktur – eine typische invertierte Bandstruktur auf und sind ein vielversprechender Kandidat für die Nutzbarmachung der topologischen Isolatoren. GaSb, InAs und AlSb gehören zur 6,1 Ångström-Familie, welche für ihre opto-elektronischen Eigenschaften bekannt ist und häufig verwendet wird. Die Eigenschaften sowie die technologischen Grundlagen der epitaktischen Fertigung von Heterostrukturen aus den Materialien der 6,1 Ångström-Familie mittels Molekularstrahlepitaxie werden besprochen. Abschließend folgen die Charakterisierungs- und Messmethoden. Ein Überblick über die Literatur zu GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilmen in Bezug auf topologische Isolatoren rundet dieses Kapitel ab.
Zu Beginn dieser Arbeit stellten Kurzschlusskanäle eine Herausforderung für die Detektion der topologischen Randkanäle dar. Kapitel 3 behandelt Lösungsansätze hierfür und beschreibt die Verbesserung der Herstellung von GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilm-Strukturen mit Blick auf die zukünftige Realisation topologischer Randkanäle. In Abschnitt 3.1 werden numerische Simulationen präsentiert, die sich mit der Inversion der elektronischen Niveaus in Abhängigkeit der GaSb und InAs Schichtdicken dGaSb und dInAs beschäftigen. Ein geeigneter Schichtaufbau für Strukturen mit invertierter Bandordnung liegt im Parameterraum von 8 nm ≾ dInAs ≾ 12 nm und 8 nm ≾ dGaSb ≾ 10 nm. Abschnitt 3.2 beschreibt die epitaktische Herstellung von GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilmen mittels Molekularstrahlepitaxie. Die Fertigung eines GaSb Quasisubstrats auf ein GaAs Substrat wird präsentiert und anschließend der Wechsel auf native GaSb Substrate mit einer reduzierten Defektdichte sowie reproduzierbar hoher Probenqualität begründet. Ein Wechseln von binärem AlSb auf gitterangepasstes AlAsSb erlaubt die Verwendung dickerer Barrieren. Versuche, eine hinlängliche Isolation des Backgates durch das Einbringen einer dickeren unteren Barriere zu erreichen, werden in diesem Abschnitt diskutiert. In Abschnitt 3.3 wird die Optimierung der Probenprozessierung gezeigt. Die Kombination zweier angepasster Ätzprozesse – eines trockenchemischen und eines sukzessive folgenden nasschemischen Schrittes – liefert zusammen mit der Entfernung von Oberflächenoxiden reproduzierbar gute Ergebnisse. Ein materialselektiver Ätzprozess mit darauffolgender direkter Kontaktierung des InAs Quantenfilmes liefert gute Kontaktwiderstände, ohne Kurzschlusskanäle zu erzeugen. Abschnitt 3.4 gibt einen kompakten Überblick, über den im weiteren Verlauf der Arbeit verwendeten „best practice“ Prozess.
Mit diesem verbesserten Prozess wurden Proben mit variabler InAs Schichtdicke gefertigt und bei 4,2 K auf ihre Transporteigenschaften hin untersucht. Dies ist in Kapitel 4 präsentiert und diskutiert. Abschnitt 4.1 beschreibt die Serie aus drei Proben mit GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilm in AlSb Matrix mit einer variablen InAs Schichtdicke. Die InAs Schichtdicke wurde über numerische Simulationen so gewählt, dass je eine Probe im trivialen Regime, eine im invertierten Regime und eine am Übergang liegt. Gezeigt werden in Kapitel 4.2 Magnetotransportmessungen für konstante Frontgatespannungen sowie Messungen mit konstantem Magnetfeld gegen die Frontgatespannung. Die Messungen bestätigen eine Fertigung quantitativ vergleichbarer Proben, zeigen aber auch, dass keine der Proben im topologischen Regime liegt. Hierfür kommen mehrere Ursachen in Betracht: Eine Überschätzung der Hybridisierung durch die numerische Simulation, zu geringe InAs Schichtdicken in der Fertigung oder ein asymmetrisches Verschieben mit nur einem Gate (Kapitel 4.3). Zur Reduktion der Volumenleitfähigkeit wurden Al-haltigen Schichten am GaSb/InAs Übergang eingebracht. Die erwartete Widerstandssteigerung konnte in ersten Versuchen nicht gezeigt werde.
Die in Kapitel 5 gezeigte optische Manipulation des dominanten Ladungsträgertyps der InAs/GaSb-Doppelquantentöpfe gibt eine zusätzliche Kontrollmöglichkeit im Phasendiagramm. Optische Anregung ermöglicht den Wechsel der Majoritätsladungsträger von Elektronen zu Löchern. Dabei wird ein Regime durchlaufen, in dem beide Ladungsträger koexistieren. Dies weist stark auf eine Elektron-Loch-Hybridisierung mit nichttrivialer topologischer Phase hin. Dabei spielen zwei unterschiedliche physikalische Prozesse eine Rolle, die analog eines Frontgates bzw. eines Backgates wirken. Der Frontgate Effekt beruht auf der negativ persistenten Photoleitfähigkeit, der Backgate Effekt fußt auf der Akkumulation von Elektronen auf der Substratseite. Das hier gezeigte optisch kontrollierte Verschieben der Zustände belegt die Realisation von opto-elektronischem Schalten zwischen unterschiedlichen topologischen Phasen. Dies zeigt die Möglichkeit einer optischen Kontrolle des Phasendiagramms der topologischen Zustände in GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilmen. In Abschnitt 5.1 wird die optische Verstimmung von GaSb/InAs Quantenfilmen gezeigt und erklärt. Sie wird in Abhängigkeit von der Temperatur, der Anregungswellenlänge sowie der Anregungsintensität untersucht. Kontrollversuche an Proben mit einem unterschiedlichen Strukturaufbau zeigen, dass das Vorhandensein eines Übergitters auf der Substratseite der Quantenfilmstruktur essentiell für die Entstehung der Backgate-Wirkung ist (Abschnitt 5.2). Abschließend werden in Abschnitt 5.3 die Erkenntnisse zur optischen Kontrolle zusammengefasst und deren Möglichkeiten, wie optisch definierte topologischen Phasen-Grenzflächen, diskutiert.
Bi2Se3 Nanostrukturen
Mit Blick auf die Vorteile eines erhöhten Oberfläche-zu-Volumen Verhältnisses ist die Verwendung von Nanostrukturen für das Anwendungsgebiet der dreidimensionalen topologischen Isolatoren effizient. Mit dem Ziel, diesen Effekt für die Realisation des topologischen Isolators in Bi2Se3 auszunutzen, wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit erstmalig das Wachstum von Bi2Se3 Nanodrähten und -flocken mit Molekularstrahlepitaxie realisiert. In Kapitel 6 werden technische und physikalische Grundlagen hierzu erläutert (Abschnitt 6.1). Ausgehend von einer Einführung in dreidimensionale topologische Isolatoren werden die Eigenschaften des topologischen Zustandes in Bi2Se3 gezeigt. Darauf folgen die Kristalleigenschaften von Bi2Se3 sowie die Erklärung des epitaktischen Wachstums von Nanostrukturen mit Molekularstrahlepitaxie. In Abschnitt 6.2 schließt sich die Beschreibung der epitaktischen Herstellung an. Die Kristallstruktur wurde mittels hochauflösender Röntgendiffraktometrie und Transmissionselektronenmikroskopie als Bi2Se3 identifiziert. Rasterelektronenmikroskopie-Aufnahmen zeigen Nanodrähte und Nanoflocken auf mit Gold vorbehandelten bzw. nicht mit Gold vorbehandelten Proben. Der Wachstumsmechanismus für Nanodrähte kann nicht zweifelsfrei definiert werden. Das Fehlen von Goldtröpfchen an der Drahtspitze legt einen wurzelbasierten Wachstumsmechanismus nahe (Abschnitt 6.3).
Main focus of the present dissertation was to gain new insight about the interaction between magnetic ions and the conduction band of diluted magnetic semiconductors. This interaction in magnetic semiconductors with carrier concentrations near the metal-insulator transition (MIT) in an external magnetic field is barely researched. Hence, n-doped Zn1−xMnxSe:Cl samples were studied.
Resonant Raman spectroscopy was employed at an external magnetic field between 1T and 7T and a temperature of 1.5K.
The resulting magnetization of the material amplifies the splitting of states with opposite spins both in the valence and the conduction band. This is known as the "giant-Zeeman-effect".
In this thesis, the resonance of the electron spin flip process, i.e. the enhancement of the signal depending on the excitation energy, was used as an indicator to determine the density of states of the charge carriers. The measured resonance profiles of each sample showed a structure, which consist of two partially overlapping Gaussian curves. The analysis of the Gaussian curves revealed that their respective maxima are separated independent of the magnetic field strenght by about 5 meV, which matches the binding energy of the donor bound exciton (D0, X).
A widening of the full width at half maximum of the resonance profile was observed with increasing magnetic field. A detailed analysis of this behavior showed that the donor bound exciton spin flip resonance primarily accounts for the widening for all samples with doping concentrations below the metal insulator transition. A model was proposed for the interpretation of this observation.
This is based on the fundamental assumptions of a spatially random distribution of the manganese ions on the group-II sublattice of the ZnSe crystal and the finite extension of the excitons. Thus, each exciton covers an individual quantity of manganese ions, which manifest as a local manganese concentration. This local manganese concentration is normally distributed for a set of excitons and hence, the evaluation of the distribution allows the determination of exciton radii
Two trends were identified for the (D0, X) radii. The radius of the bound exciton decreases with increasing carrier concentration as well as with increasing manganese concentration. The determination of the (D0, X) radii by the use of resonant spin flip Raman spectroscopy and also the observation of the behavior of the (D0, X) radius depending on the carrier concentration, was achieved for the first time.
For all samples with carrier concentrations below the metal-insulator transition, the obtained (X0) radii are up to a factor of 5.9 larger than the respective (D0, X) radii. This observation is explained by the unbound character of the (X0).
For the first time, such an observation could be made by Raman spectroscopy.Beside the resonance studies, the shape of the Raman signal of the electron spin flip was analyzed. Thereby an obvious asymmetry of the signal, with a clear flank to lower Raman shifts, was observed. This asymmetry is most pronounced, when the spin flip process is excited near the (D0, X) resonance.
To explain this observation, a theoretical model was introduced in this thesis. Based on the asymmetry of the resonantly excited spin flip signal, it was possible to estimate the (D0, X) radii, too. At external magnetic fields between 1.25T and 7T, the obtained radii lie between 2.38nm and 2.75nm.
Additionally, the asymmetry of the electron spin flip signal was observed at different excitation energies. Here it is striking that the asymmetry vanishes with increasing excitation energy. At the highest excitation energy, where the electron spin flip was still detectable, the estimated radius of the exciton is 3.92nm.
Beside the observations on the electron spin flip, the resonance behavior of the spin flip processes in the d-shell of the incorporated Mn ions was studied in this thesis. This was performed for the direct Mn spin flip process as well as for the sum process of the longitudinal optical phonon with the Mn spin flip. For the Stokes and anti-Stokes direct spin flip process and for the Stokes sum process, each the resonance curve is described by considering only one resonance mechanism. In contrast, resonance for the sum process in which an anti-Stokes Mn spin flip is involved, consists of two partially overlapping resonances due to different mechanisms. A detailed analysis of this resonance profile showed that for (Zn,Mn)Se at the chosen experimental parameters, an
incoming and outgoing resonance can be achieved, separated by a few meV.
Hereby, at a specific excitation energy range and a high excitation power, it was possible to achieve an inversion of the anti-Stokes to Stokes intensity, because only the anti-Stokes Mn spin flip process was enhanced resonantly.
In the past few years, two-dimensional quantum liquids with fractional excitations have been a topic of high interest due to their possible application in the emerging field of quantum computation and cryptography. This thesis is devoted to a deeper understanding of known and new fractional quantum Hall states and their stabilization in local models. We pursue two different paths, namely chiral spin liquids and fractionally quantized, topological phases.
The chiral spin liquid is one of the few examples of spin liquids with fractional statistics. Despite its numerous promising properties, the microscopic models for this state proposed so far are all based on non-local interactions, making the experimental realization challenging. In the first part of this thesis, we present the first local parent Hamiltonians, for which the Abelian and non-Abelian chiral spin liquids are the exact and, modulo a topological degeneracy, unique ground states. We have developed a systematic approach to find an annihilation operator of the chiral spin liquid and construct from it a many-body interaction which establishes locality. For various system sizes and lattice geometries, we numerically find largely gapped eigenspectra and confirm to an accuracy of machine precision the uniqueness of the chiral spin liquid as ground state of the respective system. Our results provide an exact spin model in which fractional quantization can be studied.
Topological insulators are one of the most actively studied topics in current condensed matter physics research. With the discovery of the topological insulator, one question emerged: Is there an interaction-driven set of fractionalized phases with time reversal symmetry? One intuitive approach to the theoretical construction of such a fractional topological insulator is to take the direct product of a fractional quantum Hall state and its time reversal conjugate. However, such states are well studied conceptually and do not lead to new physics, as the idea of taking a state and its mirror image together without any entanglement between the states has been well understood in the context of topological insulators. Therefore, the community has been looking for ways to implement some topological interlocking between different spin species. Yet, for all practical purposes so far, time reversal symmetry has appeared to limit the set of possible fractional states to those with no interlocking between the two spin species.
In the second part of this thesis, we propose a new universality class of fractionally quantized, topologically ordered insulators, which we name “fractional insulator”. Inspired by the fractional quantum Hall effect, spin liquids, and fractional Chern insulators, we develop a wave function approach to a new class of topological order in a two-dimensional crystal of spin-orbit coupled electrons. The idea is simply to allow the topological order to violate time reversal symmetry, while all locally observable quantities remain time reversal invariant. We refer to this situation as “topological time reversal symmetry breaking”. Our state is based on the Halperin double layer states and can be viewed as a two-layer system of an ↑-spin and a ↓-spin sphere. The construction starts off with Laughlin states for the ↑-spin and ↓-spin electrons and an interflavor term, which creates correlations between the two layers. With a careful parameter choice, we obtain a state preserving time reversal symmetry locally, and label it the “311-state”. For systems of up to six ↑-spin and six ↓-spin electrons, we manage to construct an approximate parent Hamiltonian with a physically realistic, local interaction.
The presented thesis summarizes the results from four and a half years of intense lithography development on (Cd,Hg)Te/HgTe/(Cd,Hg)Te quantum well structures. The effort was motivated by the unique properties of this topological insulator. Previous work from Molenkamp at al.\ has proven that the transport through such a 2D TI is carried by electrons with opposite spin, counter-propagating in 1D channels along the sample edge. However, up to this thesis, the length of quantized spin Hall channels has never been reported to exceed 4 µm. Therefore, the main focus was put on a reproducible and easy-to-handle fabrication process that reveals the intrinsic material parameters.
Every single lithography step in macro as well as microscopic sample fabrication has been re-evaluated. In the Development, the process changes have been presented along SEM pictures, microgaphs and, whenever possible, measurement responses.
We have proven the conventional ion milling etch method to damage the remaining mesa and result in drastically lower electron mobilities in samples of microscopic size.
The novel KI:I2:HBr wet etch method for macro and microstructure mesa fabrication has been shown to leave the crystalline structure intact and result in unprecedented mobilities, as high as in macroscopic characterization Hall bars. Difficulties, such as an irregular etch start and slower etching of the conductive QW have been overcome by concentration, design and etch flow adaptations. In consideration of the diffusive regime, a frame around the EBL write field electrically decouples the structure mesa from the outside wafer. As the smallest structure, the frame is etched first and guarantees a non-different etching of the conductive layer during the redox reaction. A tube-pump method assures reproducible etch results with mesa heights below 300 nm. The PMMA etch mask is easy to strip and leaves a clean mesa with no redeposition. From the very first attempts, to the final etch process, the reader has been provided with the characteristics and design requirements necessary to enable the fabrication of nearly any mesa shape within an EBL write field of 200 µm.
Magneto resistance measurement of feed-back samples have been presented along the development chronology of wet etch method and subsequent lithography steps. With increasing feature quality, more and more physics has been revealed enabling detailed evaluation of smallest disturbances. The following lithography improvements have been implemented. They represent a tool-box for high quality macro and microstructure fabrication on (CdHg)Te/HgTe of almost any kind.
The optical positive resist ECI 3027 can be used as wet and as dry etch mask for structure sizes larger than 1 µm. It serves to etch mesa structures larger than the EBL write field.
The double layer PMMA is used for ohmic contact fabrication within the EBL write field. Its thickness allows to first dry etch the (Cd,Hg)Te cap layer and then evaporate the AuGe contact, in situ and self-aligned. Because of an undercut, up to 300 nm can be metalized without any sidewalls after the lift-off. An edge channel mismatch within the contact leads can be avoided, if the ohmic contacts are designed to reach close to the sample and beneath the later gate electrode.
The MIBK cleaning step prior to the gate application removes PMMA residuals and thereby improves gate and potential homogeneity.
The novel low HfO2-ALD process enables insulator growth into optical and EBL lift-off masks of any resolvable shape. Directly metalized after the insulator growth, the self-aligned method results in thin and homogeneous gate electrode reproducibly withholding gate voltages to +-10 V.
The optical negative resist ARN 4340 exhibits an undercut when developed. Usable as dry etch mask and lift-off resist, it enables an in-situ application of ohmic contacts first etching close to the QW, then metalizing AuGe. Up to 500 nm thickness, the undercut guarantees an a clean lift-off with no sidewalls.
The undertaken efforts have led to micro Hall bar measurements with Hall plateaus and SdH-oszillations in up to now unseen levels of detail.
The gap resistance of several micro Hall bars with a clear QSH signal have been presented in Quantum Spin Hall. The first to exhibit longitudinal resistances close to the expected h/2e2 since years, they reveal unprecedented details in features and characteristics. It has been shown that their protection against backscattering through time reversal symmetry is not as rigid as previously claimed. Values below and above 12.9 kΩ been explained, introducing backscattering within the Landauer-Büttiker formalism of edge channel transport. Possible reasons have been discussed. Kondo, interaction and Rashba-backscattering arising from density inhomogeneities close to the edge are most plausible to explain features on and deviations from a quantized value. Interaction, tunneling and dephasing mechanisms as well as puddle size, density of states and Rashba Fields are gate voltage dependent. Therefore, features in the QSH signal are fingerprints of the characteristic potential landscape.
Stable up to 11 K, two distinct but clear power laws have been found in the higher temperature dependence of the QSH in two samples. However, with ΔR = Tα, α = ¼ in one (QC0285) and α = 2 in the other (Q2745), none of the predicted dependencies could be confirmed. Whereas, the gap resistances of QC0285 remains QSH channel dominated up to 3.9 T and thereby confirmed the calculated lifting of the band inversion in magnetic field. The gate-dependent oscillating features in the QSH signal of Q2745 immediately increase in magnetic field. The distinct field dependencies allowed the assumption of two different dominant backscattering mechanisms.
Resulting in undisturbed magneto transport and unprecedented QSH measurements The Novel Micro Hall Bar Process has proven to enable the fabrication of a new generation of microstructures.
Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit optoelektronischer Transportspektroskopie verschiedener Resonanztunneldioden (RTDs). Die Arbeit ist thematisch in zwei Schwerpunktee untergliedert. Im ersten Schwerpunkt werden anhand GaAs-basierter RTD-Fotosensoren für den Telekommunikationswellenlängenbereich um 1,3 µm die Akkumulationsdynamiken photogenerierter Minoritätsladungsträger und deren Wirkung auf den RTD-Tunnelstrom untersucht. Im zweiten Schwerpunkt werden GaSb-basierte Al(As)Sb/GaSb-Doppelbarrieren-Quantentrog-RTDs in Hinblick auf ihren Raumtemperaturbetrieb entwickelt und erforscht. Diese legen den Grundstein für die spätere Realisation von RTD-Fotodetektoren im mittleren infraroten (MIR) Spektralbereich. Im Folgenden ist eine kurze inhaltliche Zusammenfassung der einzelnen Kapitel gegeben.
Kapitel 1 leitet vor dem Hintergrund eines stark steigenden Bedarfs an verlässlichen und sensitiven Fotodetektoren für Telekommunikationsanwendungen sowie für die optische Molekül- und Gasspektroskopie in das übergeordnete Thema der RTD-Fotodetektoren ein.
Kapitel 2 erläutert ausgewählte physikalische und technische Grundlagen zu RTD-Fotodetektoren. Ausgehend von einem kurzem Überblick zu RTDs, werden aktuelle Anwendungsgebiete aufgezeigt und die physikalischen Grundlagen elektrischen Transports in RTDs diskutiert. Anschließend werden Grundlagen, Definitionen und charakteristische Kenngrößen optischer Detektoren und Sensoren definiert. Abschließend werden die physikalischen Grundlagen zum Fotostrom in RTDs beschrieben.
In Kapitel 3 RTD-Fotosensor zur Lichtdetektion bei 1,3 µm werden AlGaAs/GaAs-Doppelbarrieren-Quantentrog-Resonanztunneldioden (DBQW-RTDs) mit gitterangepasster, quaternärer GaInNAs-Absorptionsschicht als Raumtemperatur-Fotodetektoren für den nahen infraroten (NIR) Spektralbereich bei der Telekommunikationswellenlänge von λ=1,3 µm untersucht. RTDs sind photosensitive Halbleiterbauteile, die innerhalb der vergangenen Jahre aufgrund ihrer hohen Fotosensitivität und Fähigkeit selbst einzelne Photonen zu detektieren, ein beachtliches Interesse geweckt haben. Die RTD-Fotosensitivität basiert auf einer Coulomb-Wechselwirkung photogenerierter und akkumulierter Ladungsträger. Diese verändern das lokale elektrostatische Potential und steuern so einen empfindlichen Resonanztunnelstrom. Die Kenntnis der zugrundeliegenden physikalischen Parameter und deren Spannungsabhängigkeit ist essentiell, um optimale Arbeitspunkte und Bauelementdesigns zu identifizieren.
Unterkapitel 3.1 gibt einen Überblick über das Probendesign der untersuchten RTD-Fotodetektoren, deren Fabrikationsprozess sowie eine Erläuterung des Fotodetektionsmechanismus. Über Tieftemperatur-Elektrolumineszenz-Spektroskopie wird die effektive RTD-Quantentrog-Breite zu d_DBQW≃3,4 nm bestimmt. Die Quantisierungsenergien der Elektron- und Schwerloch-Grundzustände ergeben sich zu E_Γ1≈144 meV und E_hh1≈39 meV. Abschließend wird der in der Arbeit verwendeten Messaufbau skizziert.
In Unterkapitel 3.2 werden die physikalischen Parameter, die die RTD-Fotosensitivität bestimmen, auf ihre Spannungsabhängigkeit untersucht. Die Fotostrom-Spannungs-Kennlinie des RTD-Fotodetektors ist nichtlinear und über drei spannungsabhängige Parametern gegeben: der RTD-Quanteneffizienz η(V), der mittleren Lebensdauer photogenerierter und akkumulierter Minoritätsladungsträger (Löcher) τ(V) und der RTD-I(V)-Kennlinie im Dunkeln I_dark (V). Die RTD Quanteneffizienz η(V) kann über eine Gaußsche-Fehlerfunktion modelliert werden, welche beschreibt, dass Lochakkumulation erst nach Überschreiten einer Schwellspannung stattfindet. Die mittlere Lebensdauer τ(V) fällt exponentiell mit zunehmender Spannung V ab. Über einen Vergleich mit thermisch limitierten Lebensdauern in Quantentrögen können Leitungsband- und Valenzband-Offset zu Q_C \≈0,55 und Q_V≈0,45 abgeschätzt werden. Basierend auf diesen Ergebnissen wird ein Modell für die Fotostrom-Spannungs-Kennlinie erstellt, das eine elementare Grundlage für die Charakterisierung von RTD-Photodetektoren bildet.
In Unterkapitel 3.3 werden die physikalischen Parameter, die die RTD-Fotosensitivität beschränken, detailliert auf ihre Abhängigkeit gegenüber der einfallenden Lichtleistung untersucht. Nur für kleine Lichtleistungen wird eine konstante Sensitivität von S_I=5,82×〖10〗^3 A W-1 beobachtet, was einem Multiplikationsfaktor von M=3,30×〖10〗^5 entspricht. Für steigende Lichtleistungen fällt die Sensitivität um mehrere Größenordnungen ab. Die abfallende, nichtkonstante Sensitivität ist maßgeblich einer Reduktion der mittleren Lebensdauer τ zuzuschreiben, die mit steigender Lochpopulation exponentiell abfällt. In Kombination mit den Ergebnissen aus Unterkapitel 3.2 wird ein Modell der RTD-Fotosensitivität vorgestellt, das die Grundlage einer Charakterisierung von RTD-Fotodetektoren bildet. Die Ergebnisse können genutzt werden, um die kritische Lichtleistung zu bestimmen, bis zu der der RTD-Fotodetektor mit konstanter Sensitivität betrieben werden kann, oder um den idealen Arbeitspunkt für eine minimale rauschäquivalente Leistung (NEP) zu identifizieren. Dieser liegt für eine durch theoretisches Schrotrauschen limitierte RTD bei einem Wert von NEP=1,41×〖10〗^(-16) W Hz-1/2 bei V=1,5 V.
In Kapitel 4 GaSb-basierte Doppelbarrieren-RTDs werden unterschiedliche Al(As)Sb/GaSb-DBQW-RTDs auf ihre elektrische Transporteigenschaften untersucht und erstmalig resonantes Tunneln von Elektronen bei Raumtemperatur in solchen Resonanztunnelstrukturen demonstriert. Unterkapitel 4.1 beschreibt den Wachstums- und der Fabrikationsprozess der untersuchten AlAsSb/GaSb-DBQW-RTDs.
In Unterkapitel 4.2 wird Elektronentransport durch eine AlSb/GaSb-DBQW-Resonanztunnelstruktur untersucht. Bei einer Temperatur von T=4,2 K konnte resonantes Tunneln mit bisher unerreicht hohen Resonanz-zu-Talstrom-Verhältnisse von PVCR=20,4 beobachtet werden. Dies wird auf die exzellente Qualität des Halbleiterkristallwachstums und des Fabrikationsprozesses zurückgeführt. Resonantes Tunneln bei Raumtemperatur konnte hingegen nicht beobachtet werden. Dies wird einer Besonderheit des Halbleiters GaSb zugeschrieben, welche dafür sorgt, dass bei Raumtemperatur die Mehrheit der Elektronen Zustände am L-Punkt anstelle des Γ Punktes besetzt. Resonantes Tunneln über den klassischen Γ Γ Γ-Tunnelpfad ist so unterbunden.
In Unterkapitel 4.3 werden die elektrischen Transporteigenschaften von AlAsSb/GaSb DBQW RTDs mit pseudomorph gewachsenen ternären Vorquantentopfemittern untersucht. Der primäre Zweck der Vorquantentopfstrukturen liegt in der Erhöhung der Energieseparation zwischen Γ- und L-Punkt. So kann Elektronentransport über L- Kanäle unterdrückt und Elektronenzustände am Γ-Punkt wiederbevölkert werden. Zudem ist bei genügend tiefen Vorquantentopfstrukturen aufgrund von Quantisierungseffekten eine Verbesserung der RTD-Transporteigenschaften möglich. Strukturen ohne Vorquantentopf-Emitter zeigen ein Tieftemperatur- (T=77 K) Resonanz-zu-Talstrom-Verhältnis von PVCR=8,2, während bei Raumtemperatur kein resonantes Tunneln beobachtet werden kann. Die Integration von Ga0,84In0,16Sb- beziehungsweise GaAs0,05Sb0,95-Vorquantentopfstrukturen führt zu resonantem Tunneln bei Raumtemperatur mit Resonanz-zu-Talstrom-Verhältnissen von PVCR=1,45 und 1,36.
In Unterkapitel 4.4 wird die Abhängigkeit der elektrischen Transporteigenschaften von AlAsSb/GaSb RTDs vom As-Stoffmengenanteil des GaAsSb-Emitter-Vorquantentopfs und der AlAsSb-Tunnelbarriere untersucht. Eine Erhöhung der As-Stoffmengenkonzentration führt zu einem erhöhten Raumtemperatur-PVCR mit Werten von bis zu 2,36 bei gleichzeitig reduziertem Tieftemperatur-PVCR. Das reduzierte Tieftemperatur-Transportvermögen wird auf eine mit steigendem As-Stoffmengenanteil zunehmend degradierende Kristallqualität zurückgeführt.
In Kapitel 5 AlAsSb/GaSb-RTD-Fotosensoren zur MIR-Lichtdetektion werden erstmalig RTD-Fotodetektoren für den MIR-Spektralbereich vorgestellt und auf ihre optoelektronischen Transporteigenschaften hin untersucht. Zudem wird erstmalig ein p-dotierter RTD-Fotodetektor demonstriert. In Unterkapitel 5.1 wird das Probendesign GaSb-basierter RTD-Fotodetektoren für den mittleren infraroten Spektralbereich vorgestellt. Im Speziellen werden Strukturen mit umgekehrter Ladungsträgerpolarität (p- statt n-Dotierung, Löcher als Majoritätsladungsträger) vorgestellt.
In Unterkapitel 5.2 werden die optischen Eigenschaften der gitterangepassten quaternären GaInAsSb-Absorptionsschicht mittels Fourier-Transformations-Infrarot-Spektroskopie untersucht. Über das Photolumineszenz-Spektrum wird die Bandlückenenergie zu E_Gap≅(447±5) meV bestimmt. Das entspricht einer Grenzwellenlänge von λ_G≅(2,77±0,04) µm. Aus dem niederenergetischen monoexponentiellem Abfall der Linienform wird eine Urbach-Energie von E_U=10 meV bestimmt. Der hochenergetische Abfall folgt der Boltzmann-Verteilungsfunktion mit einem Abfall von k_B T=25 meV.
In Unterkapitel 5.3 werden die elektrischen Transporteigenschaften der RTD-Fotodetektoren untersucht und mit denen einer n-dotierten Referenzprobe verglichen. Erstmalig wird resonantes Tunneln von Löchern in AlAsSb/GaSb-DBQW-RTDs bei Raumtemperatur demonstriert. Dabei ist PVCR=1,58. Bei T=4,2 K zeigen resonantes Loch- und Elektrontunneln vergleichbare Kenngrößen mit PVCR=10,1 und PVCR=11,4. Die symmetrische I(V)-Kennlinie der p-dotierten RTD-Fotodetektoren deutet auf eine geringe Valenzbanddiskontinuität zwischen GaSb und der GaInAsSb-Absorptionsschicht hin. Zudem sind die p-dotierten RTDs besonders geeignet für eine spätere Integration mit Typ-II-Übergittern.
In Unterkapitel 5.4 werden die optoelektronischen Transporteigenschaften p-dotierter RTD-Fotodetektoren untersucht. Das vorgestellte neuartige RTD-Fotodetektorkonzept, welches auf resonanten Lochtransport als Majoritätsladungsträger setzt, bietet speziell im für den MIR-Spektralbereich verwendeten GaSb-Materialsystem Vorteile, lässt sich aber auch auf das InP- oder GaAs- Materialsystem übertragen. Die untersuchten p-dotierten Fotodetektoren zeigen eine ausgeprägte Fotosensitivität im MIR-Spektralbereich. Fotostromuntersuchungen werden für optische Anregung mittels eines Halbleiterlasers der Wellenlänge λ=2,61 µm durchgeführt. Bei dieser Wellenlänge liegen fundamentale Absorptionslinien atmosphärischen Wasserdampfs. Die Fotostrom-Spannungs-Charakteristik bestätigt, dass die Fotosensitivität auf einer Modulation des resonanten Lochstroms über Coulomb-Wechselwirkung akkumulierter photogenerierter Minoritätsladungsträger (Elektronen) beruht. Es werden Sensitivitäten von S_I=0,13 A W-1 ermittelt. Durch eine verbesserte RTD-Quanteneffizienz aufgrund eines optimierten Dotierprofils der Absorptionsschicht lässt sich die Sensitivität auf S_I=2,71 A W-1 erhöhen, was einem Multiplikationsfaktor von in etwa M\≈8,6 entspricht. Gleichzeitig wird jedoch der RTD-Hebelfaktor verringert, sodass n_(RTD p2)=0,42⋅n_(RTD p1). Erstmalig wurde damit erfolgreich Gas-Absorptionsspektroskopie anhand von H2O-Dampf mittels MIR-RTD-Fotodetektor an drei beieinanderliegenden Absorptionslinien demonstriert.
This thesis describes the studies of topological superconductivity, which is predicted to
emerge when pair correlations are induced into the surface states of 2D and 3D topolog-
ical insulators (TIs). In this regard, experiments have been designed to investigate the
theoretical ideas first pioneered by Fu and Kane that in such system Majorana bound
states occur at vortices or edges of the system [Phys. Rev. Lett. 100, 096407 (2008), Phys.
Rev. B 79, 161408 (2009)]. These states are of great interest as they constitute a new
quasiparticle which is its own antiparticle and can be used as building blocks for fault
tolerant topological quantum computing.
After an introduction in chapter 1, chapter 2 of the thesis lays the foundation for the
understanding of the field of topology in the context of condensed matter physics with a
focus on topological band insulators and topological superconductors. Starting from a
Chern insulator, the concepts of topological band theory and the bulk boundary corre-
spondence are explained. It is then shown that the low energy Hamiltonian of mercury
telluride (HgTe) quantum wells of an appropriate thickness can be written as two time
reversal symmetric copies of a Chern insulator. This leads to the quantum spin Hall effect.
In such a system, spin-polarized one dimensional conducting states form at the edges
of the material, while the bulk is insulating. This concept is extended to 3D topological
insulators with conducting 2D surface states. As a preliminary step to treating topological
superconductivity, a short review of the microscopic theory of superconductivity, i.e. the
theory of Bardeen, Cooper, and Shrieffer (BCS theory) is presented. The presence of
Majorana end modes in a one dimensional superconducting chain is explained using the
Kitaev model. Finally, topological band insulators and conventional superconductivity
are combined to effectively engineer p-wave superconductivity. One way to investigate
these states is by measuring the periodicity of the phase of the Josephson supercurrent
in a topological Josephson junction. The signature is a 4π-periodicity compared to the
2π-periodicity in conventional Josephson junctions. The proof of the presence of this
effect in HgTe based Josephson junction is the main goal of this thesis and is discussed in
chapters 3 to 6.
Chapter 3 describes in detail the transport of a 3D topological insulator based weak
link under radio-frequency radiation. The chapter starts with a review of the state of
research of (i) strained HgTe as 3D topological insulator and (ii) the progress of induc-
ing superconducting correlations into the topological surface states and the theoretical
predictions of 3D TI based Josephson junctions. Josephson junctions based on strained
HgTe are successfully fabricated. Before studying the ac driven Josephson junctions, the
dc transport of the devices is analysed. The critical current as a function of temperature
is measured and it is possible to determine the induced superconducting gap. Under
rf illumination Shapiro steps form in the current voltage characteristic. A missing first
step at low frequencies and low powers is found in our devices. This is a signature of
a 4π-periodic supercurrent. By studying the device in a wide parameter range - as a
147148 SUMMARY
function of frequency, power, device geometry and magnetic field - it is shown that the
results are in agreement with the presence of a single gapless Andreev doublet and several
conventional modes.
Chapter 4 gives results of the numerical modelling of the I −V dynamics in a Josephson
junction where both a 2π- and a 4π-periodic supercurrents are present. This is done in
the framework of an equivalent circuit representation, namely the resistively shunted
Josephson junction model (RSJ-model). The numerical modelling is in agreement with
the experimental results in chapter 3. First, the missing of odd Shapiro steps can be
understood by a small 4π-periodic supercurrent contribution and a large number of
modes which have a conventional 2π-periodicity. Second, the missing of odd Shapiro
steps occurs at low frequency and low rf power. Third, it is shown that stochastic processes
like Landau Zener tunnelling are most probably not responsible for the 4π contribution.
In a next step the periodicity of Josephson junctions based on quantum spin Hall
insulators using are investigated in chapter 5. A fabrication process of Josephson junctions
based on inverted HgTe quantum wells was successfully developed. In order to achieve a
good proximity effect the barrier material was removed and the superconductor deposited
without exposing the structure to air. In a next step a gate electrode was fabricated which
allows the chemical potential of the quantum well to be tuned. The measurement of the
diffraction pattern of the critical current Ic due to a magnetic field applied perpendicular
to the sample plane was conducted. In the vicinity to the expected quantum spin Hall
phase, the pattern resembles that of a superconducting quantum interference device
(SQUID). This shows that the current flows predominantly on the edges of the mesa.
This observation is taken as a proof of the presence of edge currents. By irradiating the
sample with rf, missing odd Shapiro steps up to step index n = 9 have been observed. This
evidences the presence of a 4π-periodic contribution to the supercurrent. The experiment
is repeated using a weak link based on a non-inverted HgTe quantum well. This material
is expected to be a normal band insulator without helical edge channels. In this device,
all the expected Shapiro steps are observed even at low frequencies and over the whole
gate voltage range. This shows that the observed phenomena are directly connected
to the topological band structure. Both features, namely the missing of odd Shapiro
steps and the SQUID like diffraction pattern, appear strongest towards the quantum spin
Hall regime, and thus provide evidence for induced topological superconductivity in the
helical edge states.
A more direct way to probe the periodicity of the Josephson supercurrent than using
Shapiro steps is the measurement of the emitted radiation of a weak link. This experiment
is presented in chapter 6. A conventional Josephson junction converts a dc bias V to
an ac current with a characteristic Josephson frequency fJ
= eV /h. In a topological
Josephson junction a frequency at half the Josephson frequency fJ /2 is expected. A
new measurement setup was developed in order to measure the emitted spectrum of a
single Josephson junction. With this setup the spectrum of a HgTe quantum well based
Josephson junction was measured and the emission at half the Josephson frequency fJ /2
was detected. In addition, fJ emission is also detected depending on the gate voltage and
detection frequency. The spectrum is again dominated by half the Josephson emission at
low voltages while the conventional emission is determines the spectrum at high voltages.
A non-inverted quantum well shows only conventional emission over the whole gateSUMMARY 149
voltage and frequency range. The linewidth of the detected frequencies gives a measure
on the lifetime of the bound states: From there, a coherence time of 0.3–4ns for the fJ /2
line has been deduced. This is generally shorter than for the fJ line (3–4ns).
The last part of the thesis, chapter 7, reports on the induced superconducting state
in a strained HgTe layer investigated by point-contact Andreev reflection spectroscopy.
For the experiment, a HgTe mesa was fabricated with a small constriction. The diameter
of the orifice was chosen to be smaller than the mean free path estimated from magne-
totransport measurements. Thus one gets a ballistic point-contact which allows energy
resolved spectroscopy. One part of the mesa is covered with a superconductor which
induces superconducting correlations into the surface states of the topological insulator.
This experiment therefore probes a single superconductor normal interface. In contrast to
the Josephson junctions studied previously, the geometry allows the acquisition of energy
resolved information of the induced superconducting state through the measurement
of the differential conductance dI/dV as a function of applied dc bias for various gate
voltages, temperatures and magnetic fields. An induced superconducting order parame-
ter of about 70µeV was extracted but also signatures of the niobium gap at the expected
value around Δ Nb
≈ 1.1meV have been found. Simulations using the theory developed by
Blonder, Tinkham and Klapwijk and an extended model taking the topological surface
states into account were used to fit the data. The simulations are in agreement with a
small barrier at the topological insulator-induced topological superconductor interface
and a high barrier at the Nb to topological insulator interface. To understand the full con-
ductance curve as a function of applied voltage, a non-equilibrium driven transformation
is suggested. The induced superconductivity is suppressed at a certain bias value due to
local electron population. In accordance with this suppression, the relevant scattering
regions change spatially as a function of applied bias.
To conclude, it is emphasized that the experiments conducted in this thesis found
clear signatures of induced topological superconductivity in HgTe based quantum well
and bulk devices and opens up the avenue to many experiments. It would be interesting
to apply the developed concepts to other topological matter-superconductor hybrid
systems. The direct spectroscopy and manipulation of the Andreev bound states using
circuit quantum electrodynamic techniques should be the next steps for HgTe based
samples. This was already achieved in superconducting atomic break junctions by the
group in Saclay [Science 2015, 349, 1199-1202 (2015)]. Another possible development
would be the on-chip detection of the emitted spectrum as a function of the phase φ
through the junction. In this connection, the topological junction needs to be shunted
by a parallel ancillary junction. Such a setup would allow the current phase relation
I(φ) directly and the lifetime of the bound states to be measured directly. By coupling
this system to a spectrometer, which can be another Josephson junction, the energy
dependence of the Andreev bound states E(φ) could be obtained. The experiments on
the Andreev reflection spectroscopy described in this thesis could easily be extended to
two dimensional topological insulators and to more complex geometries, like a phase
bias loop or a tunable barrier at the point-contact. This work might also be useful for
answering the question how and why Majorana bound states can be localized in quantum
spin Hall systems.
This thesis aimed at the coherent investigation of the electrical and thermal transport properties of the low-dimensional organic conductor (DCNQI)2M (DCNQI: dicyanoquinonediimine; M: metallic counterion). These radical anion salts present a promising, new material class for thermoelectric applications and hence, a consistent characterization of the key parameters is required to evaluate and to optimize their performance. For this purpose, a novel experimental measurement setup enabling the determination of the electrical conductivity, the Seebeck coefficient and the thermal conductivity on a single crystalline specimen has been designed and implemented in this work. The novel measurement setup brought to operation within this thesis enabled a thorough investigation of the thermal transport properties in the (DCNQI)2M system. The thermal conductivity of (DCNQI-h8)2Cu at RT was determined to κ=1.73 W m^(-1) K^(-1). By reducing of the copper content in isostructural, crystalline (DMe-DCNQI)2CuxLi1-x alloys, the electrical conductivity has been lowered by one order of magnitude and the correlated changes in the thermal conductivity allowed for a verification of the Wiedemann-Franz (WF) law at RT. A room temperature Lorenz number of L=(2.48±0.45)⋅〖10〗^(-8) WΩK^(-2) was obtained in agreement with the standard Lorenz number L_0=2,44⋅〖10〗^(-8) WΩK^(-2) for 3D bulk metals. This value appears to be significantly reduced upon cooling below RT, even far above the Debye temperature of θ_D≈82 K, below which a breakdown of the WF law is caused by different relaxation times in response to thermal and to electric field perturbations. The experimental data enabled the first consistent evaluation of the thermoelectric performance of (DCNQI)$_2$Cu. The RT power factor of 110 μWm^(-1) K^(-2) is comparable to values obtained on PEDOT-based thermoelectric polymers. The RT figure of merit amounts to zT=0.02 which falls short by a factor of ten compared to the best values of zT=0.42 claimed for conducting polymers. It originates from the larger thermal conductivity in the organic crystals of about 1.73 W m^(-1) K^(-1) in (DCNQI)2Cu. Yet, more elaborate studies on the anisotropy of the thermal conductivity in PEDOT polymers assume their figure of merit to be zT=0.15 at most, recently. Therefore, (DCNQI)2Cu can be regarded as thermoelectric material of similar performance to polymer-based ones. Moreover, it represents one of the best organic n-type thermoelectric materials to date and as such, may also become important in hybrid thermoelectrics in combination with conducting polymers. Upon cooling below room temperature, (DCNQI)2Cu reveals its full potential attaining power factors of 50 mW K^(-2) m^(-1) and exceeding values of zT>0.15 below 40 K. These values represent the best thermoelectric performance in this low-temperature regime for organic as well as inorganic compounds and thus, low-dimensional organic conductors might pave the way toward new applications in cryogenic thermoelectrics. Further improvements may be expected from optimizing the charge carrier concentration by taking control over the CT process via the counterion stack of the crystal lattice. The concept has also been demonstrated in this work. Moreover, the thermoelectric performance in the vicinity of the CDW transition in (MeBr-DCNQI)2Cu was found to be increased by a factor of 5. Accordingly, the diversity of electronic ground states accessible in organic conductors provides scope for further improvements. Finally, the prototype of an all-organic thermoelectric generator has been built in combination with the p-type organic metal TTT2I3. While it only converts about 0.02% of the provided heat into electrical energy, the specific power output per active area attains values of up to 5 mW cm^(-2). This power output, defining the cost-limiting factor in the recovery of waste heat, is three orders of magnitude larger than in conducting polymer devices and as such, unrivaled in organic thermoelectrics. While the thermoelectric key parameters of (DCNQI)2Cu still lack behind conventional thermoelectrics made of e.g. Bi2Te3, the promising performance together with its potential for improvements make this novel material class an interesting candidate for further exploration. Particularly, the low-cost and energy-efficient synthesis routes of organic materials highlight their relevance for technological applications.
The prediction and the experimental discovery of topological insulators has set the stage for a novel type of electronic devices. In contrast to conventional metals or semiconductors, this new class of materials exhibits peculiar transport properties at the sample surface, as conduction channels emerge at the topological boundaries of the system.
In specific materials with strong spin-orbit coupling, a particular form of a two-dimensional topological insulator, the quantum spin Hall state, can be observed.
Here, the respective one-dimensional edge channels are helical in nature, meaning that there is a locking of the spin orientation of an electron and its direction of motion.
Due to the symmetry of time-reversal, elastic backscattering off interspersed impurities is suppressed in such a helical system, and transport is approximately ballistic.
This allows in principle for the realization of novel energy-efficient devices, ``spintronic`` applications, or the formation of exotic bound states with non-Abelian statistics, which could be used for quantum computing.
The present work is concerned with the general transport properties of one-dimensional helical states. Beyond the topological protection mentioned above, inelastic backscattering can arise from various microscopic sources, of which the most prominent ones will be discussed in this Thesis. As it is characteristic for one-dimensional systems, the role of electron-electron interactions can be of major importance in this context.
First, we review well-established techniques of many-body physics in one dimension such as perturbative renormalization group analysis, (Abelian) bosonization, and Luttinger liquid theory. The latter allow us to treat electron interactions in an exact way.
Those methods then are employed to derive the corrections to the conductance in a helical transport channel, that arise from various types of perturbations.
Particularly, we focus on the interplay of Rashba spin-orbit coupling and electron interactions as a source of inelastic single-particle and two-particle backscattering. It is demonstrated, that microscopic details of the system, such as the existence of a momentum cutoff, that restricts the energy spectrum, or the presence of non-interacting leads attached to the system, can fundamentally alter the transport signature.
By comparison of the predicted corrections to the conductance to a transport experiment, one can gain insight about the microscopic processes and the structure of a quantum spin Hall sample.
Another important mechanism we analyze is backscattering induced by magnetic moments. Those findings provide an alternative interpretation of recent transport measurements in InAs/GaSb quantum wells.
The subject of this thesis is the control of strain in HgTe thin-film crystals. Such systems are members of the new class of topological insulator materials and therefore of special research interest. A major task was the experimental control of the strain in the HgTe films. This was achieved by a new epitaxial approach and confirmed by cristallographic analysis and magneto-transport measurements.
In this work, strain was induced in thin films by means of coherent epitaxy on substrate crystals. This means that the film adopts the lattice constant of the substrate in the plane of the substrate-epilayer interface. The level of strain is determined by the difference between the strain-free lattice constants of the substrate and epilayer material (the so-called lattice mismatch). The film responds to an in-plane strain with a change of its lattice constant perpendicular to the interface. This relationship is crucial for both the correct interpretation of high resolution X-ray diffraction (HRXRD) measurements, and the precise determination of the band dispersion. The lattice constant of HgTe is smaller than the lattice constant of CdTe. Therefore, strain in HgTe is tensile if it is grown on a CdTe substrate. In principle, compressive strain can be achieved by using an appropriate \(\text{Cd}_{1-x}\text{Zn}_{x}\text{Te}\) substrate. This concept was modified and applied in this work.
Epilayers have been fabricated by molecular-beam epitaxy (MBE). The growth of thick buffer layers of CdTe on GaAs:Si was established as an alternative to commercial CdTe and \(text{Cd}_{0.96}\text{Zn}_{0.04}\text{Te}\) substrates. The growth conditions have been optimized by an analysis of atomic force microscopy and HRXRD studies. HRXRD measurements reveal a power-law increase of the crystal quality with increasing thickness. Residual strain was found in the buffer layers, and was attributed to a combination of finite layer thickness and mismatch of the thermal expansion coefficients of CdTe and GaAs. In order to control the strain in HgTe epilayers, we have developed a new type of substrate with freely adjustable lattice constant.
CdTe-\(\text{Cd}_{0.5}\text{Zn}_{0.5}\text{Te}\) strained-layer-superlattices have been grown by a combination of MBE and atomic-layer epitaxy (ALE), and have been analyzed by HRXRD. ALE of the \(\text{Cd}_{0.5}\text{Zn}_{0.5}\text{Te}\) layer is self-limiting to one monolayer, and the effective lattice constant can be controlled reproducibly and straightforward by adjusting the CdTe layer thickness. The crystal quality has been found to degrade with increasing Zn-fraction. However, the effect is less drastic compared to single layer \(\text{Cd}_{1-x}\text{Zn}_{x}\text{Te}\) solid solutions. HgTe quantum wells (QWs) sandwiched in between CdHgTe barriers have been fabricated in a similar fashion on superlattices and conventional CdTe and \(\text{Cd}_{0.96}\text{Zn}_{0.04}\text{Te}\) substrates. The lower critical thickness of the CdHgTe barrier material grown on superlattice substrates had to be considered regarding the sample design. The electronic properties of the QWs depend on the strain and thickness of the QW. We have determined the QW thickness with an accuracy of \(\pm\)0.5 nm by an analysis of the beating patterns in the thickness fringes of HRXRD measurements and X-ray reflectometry measurements. We have, for the first time, induced compressive strain in HgTe QWs by an epitaxial technique (i.e. the effective lattice constant of the superlattice is lower compared to the lattice constant of HgTe). The problem of the lattice mismatch between superlattice and barriers has been circumvented by using CdHgTe-ZnHgTe superlattices instead of CdHgTe as a barrier material. Furthermore, the growth of compressively strained HgTe bulk layers (with a thickness of at least 50 nm) was demonstrated as well.
The control of the state of strain adds a new degree of freedom to the design of HgTe epilayers, which has a major influence on the band structure of QWs and bulk layers. Strain in bulk layers lifts the degeneracy of the \(\Gamma_8\) bands at \(\mathbf{k}=0\). Tensile strain opens an energy gap, compressive strain shifts the touching points of the valence- and conduction band to positions in the Brillouin zone with finite \(\mathbf{k}\). Such a situation has been realized for the first time in the course of this work. For QWs in the inverted regime, it is demonstrated that compressive strain can be used to significantly enhance the thermal energy gap of the two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG). In addition, semi-metallic and semiconducting behavior is expected in wide QWs, depending on the state of strain. An examination of the temperature dependence of the subband ordering in QWs revealed that the band gap is only temperature-stable for appropriate sample parameters and temperature regimes. The band inversion is always lifted for sufficiently high temperatures.
A large number of models investigate the influence of the band gap on the stability of the quantum-spin-Hall (QSH) effect. An enhancement of the stability of QSH edge state conductance is expected for enlarged band gaps. Furthermore, experimental studies on the temperature dependence of the QSH conductance are in contradiction to theoretical predictions. Systematic studies of these aspects have become feasible based on the new flexibility of the sample design.
Detailed low-temperature magnetotransport studies have been carried out on QWs and bulk layers. For this purpose, devices have been fabricated lithographically, which consist of two Hall-bar geometries with different dimensions. This allows to discriminate between conductance at the plane of the 2DEG and the edge of the sample. The Fermi energy in the 2DEG has been adjusted by means of a top gate electrode. The strain-induced transition from semi-metallic to semiconducting characteristics in wide QWs was shown. The magnitude of the semi-metallic overlap of valence- and conduction band was determined by an analysis of the two-carrier conductance and is in agreement with band structure calculations. The band gap of the semiconducting sample was determined by measurements of the temperature dependence of the conductance at the charge-neutrality point. Agreement with the value expected from theory has been achieved for the first time in this work. The influence of the band gap on the stability of QSH edge state conductance has been investigated on a set of six samples. The band gap of the set spans a range of 10 to 55 meV. The latter value has been achieved in a highly compressively strained QW, has been confirmed by temperature-dependent conductance measurements, and is the highest ever reported in the inverted regime. Studies of the carrier mobility reveal a degradation of the sample quality with increasing Zn-fraction in the superlattice, in agreement with HRXRD observations. The enhanced band gap does not suppress scattering mechanisms in QSH edge channels, but lowers the conductance in the plane of the 2DEG. Hence, edge state conductance is the dominant conducting process even at elevated temperatures. An increase in conductance with increasing temperature has been found, in agreement with reports from other groups. The increase follows a power-law dependency, the underlying physical mechanism remains open. A cause for the lack of an increase of the QSH edge state conductance with increasing energy gap has been discussed. Possibly, the sample remains insulating even at finite carrier densities, due to localization effects. The measurement does not probe the QSH edge state conductance at the situation where the Fermi energy is located in the center of the energy gap, but in the regime of maximized puddle-driven scattering. In a first set of measurements, it has been shown that the QSH edge state conductance can be influenced by hysteretic charging effects of trapped states in the insulating dielectric. A maximized conductance of \(1.6\ \text{e}^2/\text{h}\) was obtained in a \(58\ \mu\text{m}\) edge channel. Finally, measurements on three dimensional samples have been discussed. Recent theoretical works assign compressively strained HgTe bulk layers to the Weyl semi-metal class of materials. Such layers have been synthesized and studied in magnetotransport experiments for the first time. Pronounced quantum-Hall- and Shubnikov-de-Haas features in the Hall- and longitudinal resistance indicate two-dimensional conductance on the sample surface. However, this conductance cannot be assigned definitely to Weyl surface states, due to the inversion of \(\Gamma_6\) and \(\Gamma_8\) bands. If a magnetic field is aligned parallel to the current in the device, a decrease in the longitudinal resistance is observed with increasing magnetic field. This is a signature of the chiral anomaly, which is expected in Weyl semi-metals.
Investigation of Nanostructure-Induced Localized Light Phenomena Using Ultrafast Laser Spectroscopy
(2017)
In recent years, the interaction of light with subwavelength structures, i.e., structures that are smaller than the optical wavelength, became more and more interesting to scientific research, since it provides the opportunity to manipulate light-induced dynamics below the optical diffraction limit. Specifically designed nanomaterials can be utilized to tailor the temporal evolution of electromagnetic fields at the nanoscale. For the investigation of strongly localized processes, it is essential to resolve both their spatial and their temporal behavior. The aim of this thesis was to study and/or control the temporal evolution of three nanostructure-induced localized light phenomena by using ultrafast laser spectroscopy with high spatial resolution.
In Chapter 4, the absorption of near-infrared light in thin-film a-Si:H solar cells was investigated. Using nanotextured instead of smooth interfaces for such devices leads to an increase of absorption from < 20% to more than 50% in the near-infrared regime. Time-resolved experiments with femtosecond laser pulses were performed to clarify the reason for this enhancement. The coherent backscattered radiation from nanotextured solar cell devices was measured as a function of the sample position and evaluated via spectral interferometry. Spatially varying resonance peaks in the recorded spectra indicated the formation of localized photonic modes within the nanotextured absorber layers. In order to identify the modes separately from each other, coherent two-dimensional (2D) nanoscopy was utilized, providing a high spatial resolution < 40 nm. In a nanoscopy measurement on a modified device with an exposed nanotextured a-Si:H absorber layer, hot-spot electron emission was observed and confirmed the presence of localized modes. Fitting the local 2D nanospectra at the hot-spot positions enabled the determination of the resonance frequencies and coherence lifetimes of the modes. The obtained lifetime values varied between 50 fs and 130 fs. Using a thermionic emission model allowed the calculation of the locally absorbed energy density and, with this, an estimation of the localization length of the photonic modes (≈1 μm). The localization could be classified by means of the estimated localization length and additional data evaluation of the backscattered spectra as strong localization ─ the so-called Anderson localization.
Based on the experimental results, it was concluded that the enhanced absorption of near-infrared light in thin-film silicon solar cells with nanotextured interfaces is caused by the formation of strongly localized photonic modes within the disordered absorber layers. The incoming near-infrared light is trapped in these long-living modes until absorption occurs.
In Chapter 5, a novel hybridized plasmonic device was introduced and investigated in both theory and experiment. It consists of two widely separated whispering gallery mode (WGM) nanoantennas located in an elliptical plasmonic cavity. The goal was to realize a periodic long-range energy transfer between the nanoantennas. In finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) simulations, the device was first optimized with respect to strong coupling between the localized antenna modes and the spatially-extended cavity mode. The geometrical parameters of the antennas and the cavity were adjusted separately so that the m="0" antenna mode and the cavity mode were resonant at λ="800 nm" . A high spatial overlap of the modes was achieved by positioning the two antennas in the focal spots of the cavity, leading to a distance between the antenna centers of more than twice the resonant wavelength of the modes. The spectral response of the optimized device revealed an energy splitting of the antenna and the cavity mode into three separated hybridized eigenmodes within an energy range of about 90 meV due to strong coupling. It could be well reproduced by a simple model of three coupled Lorentzian oscillators. In the time domain, an oscillatory energy transfer between both antennas with a period of 86 fs and an energy transfer efficiency of about 7% was observed for single-pulse excitation. For the experiments, devices with cavities and antennas of varying size were fabricated by means of focused-ion-beam (FIB) milling. Time-resolved correlation measurements were performed with high spatial and temporal resolution by using sequences of two femtosecond laser pulses for excitation and photoemission electron microscopy (PEEM) for detection. Local correlation traces at antennas in resonant devices, i.e., devices with enhanced electron emission at both antenna positions, were investigated and reconstructed by means of the coupled-oscillator model. The corresponding spectral response revealed separated peaks, confirming the formation of hybridized eigenmodes due to strong coupling. In a subsequent simulation for single-pulse excitation, one back-and-forth energy transfer between both antennas with an energy transfer efficiency of about 10% was observed.
Based on the theoretical and experimental results, it was demonstrated that in the presented plasmonic device a periodic long-range energy transfer between the two nanoantennas is possible. Furthermore, the coupled-oscillator model enables one to study in depth how specific device properties impact the temporal electric-field dynamics within the device. This can be exploited to further optimize energy transfer efficiency of the device. Future applications are envisioned in ultrafast plasmonic nanocircuitry. Moreover, the presented device can be employed to realize efficient SPP-mediated strong coupling between widely separated quantum emitters.
In Chapter 6, it was investigated in theory how the local optical chirality enhancement in the near field of plasmonic nanostructures can be optimized by tuning the far-field polarization of the incident light. An analytic expression was derived that enables the calculation of the optimal far-field polarizations, i.e., the two far-field polarizations which lead to the highest positive and negative local optical chirality, for any given nanostructure geometry. The two optimal far-field polarizations depend on the local optical response of the respective nanostructure and thus are functions of both the frequency ω and the position r. Their ellipticities differ only in their sign, i.e., in their direction of rotation in the time domain, and the angle between their orientations, i.e., the angle between the principal axes of their ellipses, is ±π/"2" . The handedness of optimal local optical chirality can be switched by switching between the optimal far-field polarizations. In numerical simulations, it was exemplarily shown for two specific nanostructure assemblies that the optimal local optical chirality can significantly exceed the optical chirality values of circularly polarized light in free space ─ the highest possible values in free space. The corresponding optimal far-field polarizations were different from linear and circular and varied with frequency. Using femtosecond polarization pulse shaping provides the opportunity to coherently control local optical chirality over a continuous frequency range. Furthermore, symmetry properties of nanostructures can be exploited to determine which far-field polarization is optimal.
The theoretical findings can have impact on future experimental studies about local optical chirality enhancement. Tuning the far-field polarization of the incident light offers a promising tool to enhance chirally specific interactions of local electromagnetic fields with molecular and other quantum systems in the vicinity of plasmonic nanostructures. The presented approach can be utilized for applications in chiral sensing of adsorbed molecules, time-resolved chirality-sensitive spectroscopy, and chiral quantum control.
In conclusion, each of the localized light phenomena that were investigated in this thesis ─ the enhanced local absorption of near-infrared light due to the formation of localized photonic modes, the periodic long-range energy transfer between two nanoantennas within an elliptical plasmonic cavity, and the optimization of local optical chirality enhancement by tuning the far-field polarization of the incident light ─ can open up new perspectives for a variety of future applications.
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A novel growth method has been developed, allowing for the growth of strained HgTe shells on CdTe nanowires (NWs). The growth of CdTe-HgTe core-shell NWs required high attention in controlling basic parameters like substrate temperature and the intensity of supplied material fluxes. The difficulties in finding optimized growth conditions have been successfully overcome in this work.
We found the lateral redistribution of liquid growth seeds with a ZnTe growth start to be crucial to trigger vertical CdTe NW growth. Single crystalline zinc blende CdTe NWs grew, oriented along [111]B. The substrate temperature was the most critical parameter to achieve straight and long wires. In order to adjust it, the growth was monitored by reflection high-energy electron diffraction, which was used for fine tuning of the temperature over time in each growth run individually. For optimized growth conditions, a periodic diffraction pattern allowed for the detailed analysis of atomic arrangement on the surfaces and in the bulk. The ability to do so reflected the high crystal quality and ensemble uniformity of our CdTe NWs. The NW sides were formed by twelve stable, low-index crystalline facets. We observed two types stepped and polar sides, separated by in total six flat and non-polar facets.
The high crystalline quality of the cores allowed to grow epitaxial HgTe shells around. We reported on two different heterostructure geometries. In the first one, the CdTe NWs exhibit a closed HgTe shell, while for the second one, the CdTe NWs are overgrown mainly on one side. Scanning electron microscopy and scanning transmission electron microscopy confirmed, that many of the core-shell NWs are single crystalline zinc blende and have a high uniformity. The symmetry of the zinc blende unit cell was reduced by residual lattice strain. We used high-resolution X-ray diffraction to reveal the strain level caused by the small lattice mismatch in the heterostructures. Shear strain has been induced by the stepped hetero-interface, thereby stretching the lattice of the HgTe shell by 0.06 % along a direction oriented with an angle of 35 ° to the interface.
The different heterostructures obtained, were the base for further investigation of quasi-one-dimensional crystallites of HgTe. We therefore developed methods to reliably manipulate, align, localize and contact individual NWs, in order to characterize the charge transport in our samples. Bare CdTe cores were insulating, while the HgTe shells were conducting. At low temperature we found the mean free path of charge carriers to be smaller, but the phase coherence length to be larger than the sample size of several hundred nanometers. We observed universal conductance fluctuations and therefore drew the conclusion, that the trajectories of charge carriers are defined by elastic backscattering at randomly distributed scattering sites. When contacted with superconducting leads, we saw induced superconductivity, multiple Andreev reflections and the associated excess current. Thus, we achieved HgTe/superconductor interfaces with high interfacial transparency.
In addition, we reported on the appearance of peaks in differential resistance at Delta/e for HgTe-NW/superconductor and 2*Delta/e for superconductor/HgTe-NW/superconductor junctions, which is possibly related to unconventional pairing at the HgTe/superconductor interface. We noticed that the great advantage of our self-organized growth is the possibility to employ the metallic droplet, formerly seeding the NW growth, as a superconducting contact. The insulating wire cores with a metallic droplet at the tip have been overgrown with HgTe in a fully in-situ process. A very high interface quality was achieved in this case.
Graphene-based single-electron and hybrid devices, their lithography, and their transport properties
(2016)
This work explores three different aspects of graphene, a single-layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice, with regards to its usage in future electronic devices; for instance in the context of quantum information processing. For a long time graphene was believed to be thermodynamically unstable. The discovery of this strictly two-dimensional material completed the family of carbon based structures, which had already been subject of intensive research with focus on zero-dimensional fullerenes and one-dimensional carbon nanotubes. Within only a few years of its discovery, the field of graphene related research has grown into one of today’s most diverse and prolific areas in condensed matter physics, highlighted by the award of the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics to A.K. Geim and K. Noveselov for “their groundbreaking experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene”.
From the point of view of an experimental physicist interested in the electronic properties of a material system, the most intriguing characteristic of graphene is found in the Dirac-like nature of its charge carriers, a peculiar fact that distinguishes graphene from all other known standard semiconductors. The dynamics of charge carriers close to zero energy are described by a linear energy dispersion relation, as opposed to a parabolic one, which can be understood as a result of the underlying lattice symmetry causing them to behave like massless relativistic particles. This fundamentally different behavior can be expected to lead to the observation of completely new phenomena or the occurrence of deviations in well-known effects.
Following a brief introduction of the material system in chapter 2, we present our work studying the effect of induced superconductivity in mesoscopic graphene Josephson junctions by proximity to superconducting contacts in chapter 3. We explore the use of Nb as the superconducting material driven by the lack of high critical temperature and high critical magnetic field superconductor technology in graphene devices at that time. Characterization of sputter-deposited Nb films yield a critical transition temperature of \(T_{C}\sim 8{\rm \,mK}\). A prerequisite for successful device operation is a high interface quality between graphene and the superconductor. In this context we identify the use of an Ti as interfacial layer and incorporate its use by default in our lithography process. Overall we are able to increase the interface transparency to values as high as \(85\%\). With the prospect of interesting effects in the ballistic regime we try to enhance the electronic quality of our Josephson junction devices by substrate engineering, yet with limited success. We achieve moderate charge carrier mobilities of up to \(7000{\rm \,cm^2/Vs}\) on a graphene/Boron-nitride heterostructure (fabrication details are covered in chapter 5) putting the junction in the diffusive regime (\(L_{device}<L_{\rm{mfp}}\)). We speculate that either inhomogeneities in the graphene channel or lithography residues are responsible for this observation.
Furthermore we study the Josephson effect and Andreev reflection related physics in this device by low-temperature transport measurements. The junction carries a bipolar supercurrent which remains finite at the charge neutrality point. The genuine Josephson character is confirmed by the modulation of the supercurrent as a function of an out-of-plane magnetic field resembling that of a Fraunhofer-like pattern. This is further supported by the response of the junction to microwave radiation in the form of Shaprio steps. Surprisingly we find a strongly reduced superconducting energy gap of approximately \(\Delta = 400{\rm \,\mu eV}\) by quantitatively analyzing data of multiple Andreev reflections. We show this result to be consistent by careful analysis of the device parameters and comparison of these to a theoretical model. More experiments will be needed to determine the origin of this reduction and if the presence of the Ti interfacial layer plays an important role in that.
With regards to possible usability of superconducting contacts in more complex hybrid structures we can conclude that our work establishes the necessary preconditions while still leaving room for improvements; especially in terms of device quality.
In the second part of this work we are primarily interested in electrical transport properties of graphene nanodevices and their application in graphene-superconductor hybrid structures. The fact that graphene is mechanically stable down to a few tens of nanometers in width while exhibiting a finite conductance makes it an appealing choice as host for single-electron devices, also known as quantum dots. Our work on this topic is covered in chapter 4 where we first develop a high-resolution lithography process for the fabrication of single electron devices with critical feature sizes of roughly \(50{\rm \,nm}\). To this end we use a resist etch mask in combination with a reactive-ion etch process for device patterning. Carrier confinement in graphene is known to be hindered by the Klein tunneling phenomenon, a challenge that can be overcome by using all-graphene nano-constrictions to decouple the source and drain contacts from the central island.
The traditionally used constriction design is comprised of long and narrow connections. We argue that a design with very short and narrow constrictions could be beneficial for the quantum dot performance as the length merely affects the overall conductance and requires extended side-gates to control their transmission. We confirm the functionality of two different devices in low-temperature measurements, which differ in the size of their central island with \(d=250{\rm \,nm}\) for device no. 1 and \(d=400{\rm \,nm}\) for device no. 2. Coulomb blockade measurements conducted at \(20{\rm \,mK}\) on both devices reveal clear sequences of Coulomb peaks with amplitudes of up to \(0.8\rm{\,e}^2/\rm{h}\), a value significantly larger than what is commonly reported for similar devices. We interpret this as an indication of rather homogeneous constrictions, resulting from the modified design. Coulomb diamond measurements display the behavior expected for a lithographically designed single quantum dot revealing no features related to the presence of an additional dot. Using the stability diagram we determine the addition energies of the two dots and find them to be in good agreement with values reported in the literature for devices of similar size. Using the normalized Coulomb peak spacing as a figure of merit for the device quality we find that device no. 1 quantitatively compares well with a similar device fabricated on a superior hexagonal boron-nitride substrate. This result underlines the importance of non-substrate related extrinsic disorder sources and emphasizes the cleanliness of our lithography process.
Superconductor-graphene quantum dot hybrid structures employing Nb and Al electrodes were successfully fabricated from a lithography point of view, yet no evidence of any superconducting related effect was found in transport measurements. We assign the missing observation to interface issues that require careful analysis and likely a revision of the fabrication process.
A property equally important in graphene Josephson Junctions and quantum dots is the electronic quality of the device, as has been addressed in the previous paragraphs. It turns out that the \(\rm{SiO}_{2}\;\) substrate and lithography residues constitute the two major sources of disorder in graphene. In chapter 5 we present an approach based on the original work of Dean et al. who utilize hexagonal-Boron nitride as a replacement substrate for \(\rm{SiO}_{2}\). This idea was then extended by Wang et al. who also used this material as a shield to protect the graphene surface from contaminations during the lithography process. These structures are commonly referred to as van der Waals heterostructures and are assembled by stacking individual crystals on top of each other.
For this purpose we build a mechanical transfer system based on an optical microscope equipped with an additional micro-manipulator stage allowing precise alignment of two micrometer sized crystals with high precision. We demonstrate the functionality of this setup on the basis of successfully fabricated heterostructures. Furthermore a variation on the traditional method for single graphene/boron nitride structures is presented. Based on a reversed stacking order this method yields large areas of homogeneous graphene, however it comes with the drawback of limited yields. A common type of problem accompanying the fabrication of encapsulated graphene structures is the formation of contamination spots (also referred to as bubbles in the literature) at the interfaces between BN and graphene. We experience similar issues which we are unable to prevent and thus pose a limit to the maximum available device size. In the next step we develop a full lithography paradigm including high-resolution device patterning by electron beam lithography combined with reactive ion etching and two different ways to establish electrical contact to the encapsulated graphene flake. In this context we explore the use of three different types of etch masks and find a double layer of PMMA/HSQ best suited for our purposes. Our low power plasma etch process utilizes a combination of \(\rm{O}_{2}\;\) and \(\rm{CHF}_{3}\;\) and is optimized to show reproducible etch results.
A widely used method for electrical contacts relies on one-dimensional edge contacts whose functionality crucially depends on the use of Cr as the interface layer. For compatibility reasons with superconducting materials, e.g. Nb, we develop a self-aligned contact process that instead of only Cr is also compatible with Ti. We achieve this by modifying the plasma etch parameters such that the etch process exhibits extremely low graphene etch rates while keeping a high etch rate for h-BN. This allows clearing of a narrow stripe of graphene at the edge of the structure by using a thick PMMA layer as etch mask as replacement of the PMMA/HSQ combination. The purpose of this PMMA mask is two-fold since it also serves as lift-off mask during metalization.
The quality of the edge contacts fabricated with either method is excellent as determined from transport measurements at room and cryogenic temperatures. With typical contact resistances of a few hundred \({\rm \,}\Omega\mu{\rm m}\) and a record low of \(100{\rm \,}\Omega\mu{\rm m}\) the contacts can be considered to be state-of-the-art. The positive effect of encapsulation on the electronic quality is confirmed on a device exhibiting charge carrier mobilities exceeding \(10^5{\rm \,cm^2/Vs}\), one magnitude larger than what is commonly achieved on \(\rm{SiO}_{2}\).
The investigation of induced superconductivity in graphene Josephson Junctions, quantum dots, and high mobility heterostructures underlines the versatility of this material system, while covering only a tiny fraction of its prospects. Combination of the acquired knowledge regarding the physical effects and the developed lithography processes lay the foundation towards the fabrication and study of novel graphene hybrid devices.
Um die Natur der Transportdynamik von Ladungsträgern auch auf mikroskopischen Längenskalen nicht-invasiv untersuchen zu können, wurde im ersten Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit das PL- (Photolumineszenz-) Quenching (engl.: to quench: löschen; hier: strahlungslose Rekombination von Exzitonen) in einer organischen Dünnschicht durch die injizierten und akkumulierten Löcher in einer Transistorgeometrie analysiert. Diese Zusammenführung zweier Methoden - der elektrischen Charakterisierung von Dünnschichttransistoren und der Photolumineszenzspektroskopie - erfasst die Änderung des strahlenden Zerfalls von Exzitonen infolge der Wechselwirkung mit Ladungsträgern. Dadurch werden räumlich aufgelöste Informationen über die Ladungsverteilung und deren Spannungsabhängigkeit im Transistorkanal zugänglich. Durch den Vergleich mit den makroskopischen elektrischen Kenngrößen wie der Schwell- oder der Turn-On-Spannung kann die Funktionsweise der Transistoren damit detaillierter beschrieben werden, als es die Kenngrößen alleine ermöglichen. Außerdem wird die Quantifizierung dieser mikroskopischen Interaktionen möglich, welche beispielsweise als Verlustkanal in organischen Photovoltaikzellen und organicshen Leuchtdioden auftreten können. Die Abgrenzung zu anderen dissipativen Prozessen, wie beispielsweise der Exziton-Exziton Annihilation, Ladungsträgerrekombination, Triplett-Übergänge oder Rekombination an Störstellen oder metallischen Grenzflächen, erlaubt die detaillierte Analyse der Wechselwirkung von optisch angeregten Zuständen mit Elektronen und Löchern.
Im zweiten Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit werden die Transporteigenschaften des Naphthalindiimids Cl2-NDI betrachtet, bei dem der molekulare Überlapp sowie die Reorganisationsenergie in derselben Größenordnung von etwa 0,1 eV liegen. Um experimentell auf den mikroskopischen Transport zu schließen, werden nach der Optimierung des Kristallwachstums Einkristalltransistoren hergestellt, mit Hilfe derer die Beweglichkeit entlang verschiedener kristallographischer Richtungen als Funktion der Temperatur gemessen werden kann. Die einkristalline Natur der Proben und die spezielle Transistorgeometrie ermöglichen die Analyse der räumlichen Anisotropie des Stromflusses. Der gemessene Beweglichkeitstensor wird daraufhin mit simulierten Tensoren auf der Basis von Levich-Jortner Raten verglichen, um auf den zentralen Ladungstransfermechanismus zu schließen.
Time and Spatially Resolved Photoluminescence Spectroscopy of Hot Excitons in Gallium Arsenide
(2015)
The present thesis investigates the impact of hot exciton effects on the low-temperature time and spatially resolved photoluminescence (PL) response of free excitons in high-purity gallium arsenide (GaAs). The work at hand extends available studies of hot carrier effects, which in bulk GaAs have up to now focused on hot electron populations. In crucial distinction from previous work, we extensively study the free exciton second LO-phonon replica. The benefit of this approach is twofold. First, the two LO phonon-assisted radiative recombination allows to circumvent the inherent interpretation ambiguities of the previously investigated free exciton zero-phonon line. Second, the recombination line shape of the second LO-phonon replica provides direct experimental access to the exciton temperature, thereby enabling the quantitative assessment of hot exciton effects.
In the first part of the thesis, we address the influence of transient cooling on the time evolution of an initially hot photocarrier ensemble. To this end, we investigate time-resolved photoluminescence (TRPL) signals detected on the free exciton second LO-phonon replica. Settling a long-standing question, we show by comparison with TRPL transients of the free exciton zero-phonon line that the slow free exciton photoluminescence rise following pulsed optical excitation is dominated by the slow buildup of a free exciton population and not by the relaxation of large K-vector excitons to the Brillouin zone center. To establish a quantitative picture of the delayed photoluminescence onset, we determine the cooling dynamics of the initially hot photocarrier cloud from a time-resolved line shape analysis of the second LO-phonon replica. We demonstrate that the Saha equation, which fundamentally describes the thermodynamic population balance between free excitons and the uncorrelated electron-hole plasma, directly translates the experimentally derived cooling curves into the time-dependent conversion of unbound electron-hole pairs into free excitons.
In the second part of the thesis, we establish the impact of hot exciton effects on low-temperature spatially resolved photoluminescence (SRPL) studies. Such experiments are widely used to investigate charge carrier and free exciton diffusion in semiconductors and semiconductor nanostructures. By SRPL spectroscopy of the second LO-phonon replica, we show that above-band gap focused laser excitation inevitably causes local heating in the carrier system, which crucially affects the diffusive expansion of a locally excited exciton packet. Undistorted free exciton diffusion profiles, which are correctly described by the commonly used formulation of the photocarrier diffusion equation, are only observed in the absence of spatial temperature gradients. At low sample temperatures, the reliable determination of free exciton diffusion coefficients from both continuous-wave and time-resolved SRPL spectroscopy requires strictly resonant optical excitation.
Using resonant laser excitation, we observe the dimensional crossover of free exciton diffusion in etched wire structures of a thin, effectively two-dimensional GaAs epilayer. When the lateral wire width falls below the diffusion length, the sample geometry becomes effectively one-dimensional. The exciton diffusion profile along the wire stripe is then consistently reproduced by the steady-state solution to the one-dimensional diffusion equation.
Finally, we demonstrate the formation of macroscopic free and bound exciton photoluminescence rings in bulk GaAs around a focused laser excitation spot. Both ring formation effects are due to pump-induced local heating in the exciton system. For a quantitative assessment of the mechanism underlying the free exciton ring formation, we directly determine the exciton temperature gradient from a spatially resolved line shape analysis of the free exciton second LO-phonon replica. We demonstrate that a pump-induced hot spot locally modifies the thermodynamic population balance between free excitons and unbound electron-hole pairs described by the Saha equation, which naturally explains the emergence of macroscopic free exciton ring structures.
In summary, we demonstrate that quantitative consideration of hot exciton effects provides a coherent picture both of the time-domain free exciton luminescence kinetics and of the distinct spatially resolved photoluminescence patterns developing under the influence of spatial photocarrier diffusion.
Feedback efficiency and training effects during alpha band modulation over the sensorimotor cortex
(2015)
Neural oscillations can be measured by electroencephalography (EEG) and these oscillations can be characterized by their frequency, amplitude and phase. The mechanistic properties of neural oscillations and their synchronization are able to explain various aspects of many cognitive functions such as motor control, memory, attention, information transfer across brain regions, segmentation of the sensory input and perception (Arnal and Giraud, 2012). The alpha band frequency is the dominant oscillation in the human brain. This oscillatory activity is found in the scalp EEG at frequencies around 8-13 Hz in all healthy adults (Makeig et al., 2002) and considerable interest has been generated in exploring EEG alpha oscillations with regard to their role in cognitive (Klimesch et al., 1993; Hanselmayr et al., 2005), sensorimotor (Birbaumer, 2006; Sauseng et al., 2009) and physiological (Lehmann, 1971; Niedermeyer, 1997; Kiyatkin, 2010) aspects of human life. The ability to voluntarily regulate the alpha amplitude can be learned with neurofeedback training and offers the possibility to control a brain-computer interface (BCI), a muscle independent interaction channel. BCI research is predominantly focused on the signal processing, the classification and the algorithms necessary to translate brain signals into control commands than on the person interacting with the technical system. The end-user must be properly trained to be able to successfully use the BCI and factors such as task instructions, training, and especially feedback can therefore play an important role in learning to control a BCI (Neumann and Kübler, 2003; Pfurtscheller et al., 2006, 2007; Allison and Neuper, 2010; Friedrich et al., 2012; Kaufmann et al., 2013; Lotte et al., 2013).
The main purpose of this thesis was to investigate how end-users can efficiently be trained to perform alpha band modulation recorded over their sensorimotor cortex. The herein presented work comprises three studies with healthy participants and participants with schizophrenia focusing on the effects of feedback and training time on cortical activation patterns and performance. In the first study, the application of a realistic visual feedback to support end-users in developing a concrete feeling of kinesthetic motor imagery was tested in 2D and 3D visualization modality during a single training session. Participants were able to elicit the typical event-related desynchronisation responses over sensorimotor cortex in both conditions but the most significant decrease in the alpha band power was obtained following the three-dimensional realistic visualization. The second study strengthen the hypothesis that an enriched visual feedback with information about the quality of the input signal supports an easier approach for motor imagery based BCI control and can help to enhance performance. Significantly better performance levels were measurable during five online training sessions in the groups with enriched feedback as compared to a conventional simple visual feedback group, without significant differences in performance between the unimodal (visual) and multimodal (auditory–visual) feedback modality. Furthermore, the last study, in which people with schizophrenia participated in multiple sessions with simple feedback, demonstrated that these patients can learn to voluntarily regulate their alpha band. Compared to the healthy group they required longer training times and could not achieve performance levels as high as the control group. Nonetheless, alpha neurofeedback training lead to a constant increase of the alpha resting power across all 20 training session.
To date only little is known about the effects of feedback and training time on BCI performance and cortical activation patterns. The presented work contributes to the evidence that healthy individuals can benefit from enriched feedback: A realistic presentation can support participants in getting a concrete feeling of motor imagery and enriched feedback, which instructs participants about the quality of their input signal can give support while learning to control the BCI. This thesis demonstrates that people with schizophrenia can learn to gain control of their alpha oscillations recorded over the sensorimotor cortex when participating in sufficient training sessions. In conclusion, this thesis improved current motor imagery BCI feedback protocols and enhanced our understanding of the interplay between feedback and BCI performance.
Topological insulators are electronic phases that insulate in the bulk and accommodate a peculiar, metallic edge liquid with a spin-dependent dispersion.
They are regarded to be of considerable future use in spintronics and for quantum computation.
Besides determining the intrinsic properties of this rather novel electronic phase, considering its combination with well-known physical systems can generate genuinely new physics.
In this thesis, we report on such combinations including topological insulators. Specifically, we analyze an attached Rashba impurity, a Kondo dot in the two channel setup, magnetic impurities on the surface of a strong three-dimensional topological insulator, the proximity coupling of the latter system to a superconductor, and hybrid systems consisting of a topological insulator and a semimetal.
Let us summarize our primary results.
Firstly, we determine an analytical formula for the Kondo cloud and describe its possible detection in current correlations far away from the Kondo region.
We thereby rely on and extend the method of refermionizable points.
Furthermore, we find a class of gapless topological superconductors and semimetals, which accommodate edge states that behave similarly to the ones of globally gapped topological phases. Unexpectedly, we also find edge states that change their chirality when affected by sufficiently strong disorder.
We regard the presented research helpful in future classifications and applications of systems containing topological insulators, of which we propose some examples.
This work sheds light on different aspects of the silicon vacancy in SiC:
(1) Defect creation via irradiation is shown both with electrons and neutrons. Optical properties have been determined: the excitation of the vacancy is most efficient at excitation wavelengths between 720nm and 800nm. The PL decay yields a characteristic excited state lifetime of (6.3±0.6)ns.
(2) Defect engineering, meaning the controlled creation of vacancies in SiC with varying neutron fluence. The defect density could be engineered over eight orders of magnitude. On the one hand, in the sample with highest emitter density, the huge PL signal could even be enhanced by factor of five via annealing mechanisms. On the other hand, in the low defect density samples, single defects with photostable room temperature NIR emission were doubtlessly proven. Their lifetime of around 7ns confirmed the value of the transient measurement.
(3) Also electrical excitation of the defects has been demonstrated in a SiC LED structure.
(4) The investigations revealed for the first time that silicon vacancies can even exist SiC nanocrystals down to sizes of about 60 nm. The defects in the nanocrystals show stable PL emission in the NIR and even magnetic resonance in the 600nm fraction.
In conclusion, this work ascertains on the one hand basic properties of the silicon vacancy in silicon carbide. On the other hand, proof-of-principle measurements test the potential for various defect-based applications of the vacancy in SiC, and confirm the feasibility of e.g. electrically driven single photon sources or nanosensing applications in the near future.
In oxidischen Heterostrukturen rufen Neuordnung von Ladung und Spin eine Vielzahl von unerwarteten physikalischen Eigenschaften hervor. Die Möglichkeit, Leitfähigkeit, Magnetismus oder auch Hochtemperatur-Supraleitung zu kontrollieren, machen diese künstlich hergestellten Materialien vor allem in Hinblick auf eine zukünftige Anwendung in der Mikroelektronik äußerst interessant. Dies erfordert jedoch ein grundsätzliches Verständnis für die zugrunde liegenden Mechanismen. Die vorliegende Doktorarbeit befasst sich mit photonengestützter Spektroskopie, die einen direkten Zugang zur elektronischen Struktur dieser Heterostruktursysteme ermöglicht. Ein weiteres Ziel ist es, geeignete spektroskopische Methoden zur Charakterisierung der vergrabenen Schichten zu etablieren.
Zwei prototypische oxidische Mehrschichtsysteme stehen im Zentrum der hier vorgestellten Untersuchungen. Das LaAlO3/SrTiO3-Heterostruktursystem weist ab einer kritischen LaAlO3-Filmdicke an der Grenzfläche ein zweidimensionales Elektronensystem mit hochmobilen Ladungsträgern auf. Als treibender Mechanismus wird die elektronische Rekonstruktion diskutiert. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde dieses zweidimensionale Elektronensystem mithilfe der Photoelektronenspektroskopie und der resonanten inelastischen Röntgenstreuung charakterisiert. Die daraus bestimmten Ladungsträgerdichten weisen im Vergleich mit Daten aus Transportmessungen auf eine Koexistenz von lokalisierten und mobilen Ladungsträgern an der Grenzfläche hin. Die Analyse von Rumpfniveau- und Valenzbandspektren zeigt, dass man zur Erklärung der experimentellen Resultate ein modifiziertes Bild der elektronischen Rekonstruktion benötigt, bei der Sauerstofffehlstellen an der LaAlO3-Oberfläche als Ladungsreservoir dienen könnten. Mithilfe der resonanten Photoelektronenspektroskopie war es möglich, die metallischen Zustände am chemischen Potential impulsaufgelöst zu spektroskopieren. So gelang es erstmals, die vergrabene Fermi-Fläche einer oxidischen Heterostruktur zu vermessen. Außerdem konnten Titan-artige Zustände identifiziert werden, die höchstwahrscheinlich durch Sauerstofffehlstellen im SrTiO3 lokalisiert sind. Diese werden als mögliche Quelle für den Ferromagnetismus interpretiert, der mit der supraleitenden Phase in der LaAlO3/SrTiO3-Heterostruktur koexistiert.
Bei dem anderen hier untersuchten Mehrschichtsystem handelt es sich um die LaNiO3-LaAlO3-Übergitterstruktur. Der Einbau des metallischen LaNiO3 in eine Heterostruktur ist aufgrund seiner Nähe zu einer korrelationsinduzierten isolierenden Phase hinsichtlich einer kontrollierten Ausbildung von neuartigen Phasen besonders interessant. In der Tat beobachtet man unterhalb einer LaNiO3-Schichtdicke von vier Einheitszellen einen kontinuierlichen Metall-Isolator-Übergang, der sich in den Valenzbandspektren durch einen Verlust an Quasiteilchenkohärenz äußert. Auch wenn die impulsaufgelösten
Daten am Fermi-Niveau durch Photoelektronenbeugung beeinflusst sind, so lässt sich dennoch eine Fermi-Fläche identifizieren. Ihre Topologie bietet die Möglichkeit eines Fermi-Flächen-Nestings mit der Ausbildung einer Spindichtewelle. Die Resultate unterstützen die Hinweise auf eine magnetische Ordnung im zweidimensionalen Grundzustand.
This thesis deals with quantum Monte Carlo simulations of correlated low dimensional electron systems. The correlation that we have in mind is always given by the Hubbard type electron electron interaction in various settings. To facilitate this task, we develop the necessary methods in the first part. We develop the continuous time interaction expansion quantum algorithm in a manner suitable for the treatment of effective and non-equilibrium problems. In the second part of this thesis we consider various applications of the algorithms. First we examine a correlated one-dimensional chain of electrons that is subject to some form of quench dynamics where we suddenly switch off the Hubbard interaction. We find the light-cone-like Lieb-Robinson bounds and forms of restricted equilibration subject to the conserved quantities. Then we consider a Hubbard chain subject to Rashba spin-orbit coupling in thermal equilibrium. This system could very well be realized on a surface with the help of metallic adatoms. We find that we can analytically connect the given model to a model without spin-orbit coupling. This link enabled us to interpret various results for the standard Hubbard model, such as the single-particle spectra, now in the context of the Hubbard model with Rashba spin-orbit interaction. And finally we have considered a magnetic impurity in a host consisting of a topological insulator. We find that the impurity still exhibits the same features as known from the single impurity Anderson model. Additionally we study the effects of the impurity in the bath and we find that in the parameter regime where the Kondo singlet is formed the edge state of the topological insulator is rerouted around the impurity.
In the course of this dissertation, we have presented the interest of using spectroscopic methods to unravel the physics of polymer semiconductors in photovoltaic applications. Applying photoluminescence and photoinduced absorption spectroscopy to the reference system P3HT:PCBM has enabled us to study the major steps of photocurrent generation in organic bulk heterojunctions, from excitons generation to charges extraction and loss mechanisms and thus to improve the understanding of those mechanisms.
The exciton binding energy, is the first obstacle to overcome for photocurrent generation in organic solar cell and the reason for the use of two materials, whose heterojunction act as a driving force for charge separation. We developed an original photoluminescence-detected field-induced exciton quenching method to investigate this energy. Absorption and photoluminescence spectra of pure P3HT show that, while both amorphous and crystalline domains participate in
absorption, the energy is then transferred to the crystalline domains, from where the photoluminescence is exclusively originating. The field dependence of this photoluminescence showed that an energy of no less than 420 meV is necessary to split excitons into non photon-emitting species. Comparing those results with energy levels obtained by absorption and photoelectron spectroscopies, confirmed that the formation of those species is only a first step toward dissociation into free charges. Indeed, photoemission spectroscopy and the onset
of photocurrent upon increasing the photon energy in a pure P3HT solar cell, concomitantly show that the energy level of a pair of free polarons is located 0.7 eV above the one of the exciton. The comprehensive analysis of those results originating from those different method enable us to draw a global picture of the states and energies involved in free polarons generation in pure material. This work has been widely acknowledged by the scientific community, published in Physical Review B in 2010 [1] and presented in national [2] and international [3] conferences.
The spectroscopy of excited states is used to detect the presence of wanted species (charges) and potentially unwanted neutral species upon photoexcitation. As such, it offers us the possibility to qualify the efficiency of charge generation and, if any, identify the competing processes and the generation of unwanted species. In the frame of the European Marie Curie Research Network SolarNType,[4] this possibility was used - in combination with morphological,
charge transport and devices characterizationsn - to study a number of new donor:acceptor blends. Thanks to those techniques, we were able to not only quantify the potential of those blends, but also to provide the chemist laboratories with a precious and detailed feedback on the strengths and weakness of the molecules, regarding charge generation, transport and extraction. The detailed study of terrylene-3,4:11,12-bis(dicarboximide) as electron acceptor for
solar cells application was published in the peer review journal Synthetic Metals and was chosen to illustrate the cover page of the issue [5].
Finally, in the last chapter, we have used time resolved photoinduced absorption to improve the understanding of the charge carrier loss mechanisms in P3HT:PCBM active layers. This comprehension is of prime importance because, the fact that this recombination is far weaker than expected from the Langevin theory, enable polarons to travel further without recombining and thus to build thicker and more efficient devices. A comprehensive analysis of steady-state
PIA spectra of pure P3HT, indicates that probing at 980 nm at a temperature between 140 and 250 K enables to monitor specifically polaron densities in both neat P3HT and P3HT:PCBM. Applying this finding to transient absorption enabled us to monitor, for the first time, the bimolecular recombination in pure P3HT, and to discover that - in sharp contrast with the blend - this recombination was in agreement with the Langevin theory. Moreover, it enables us to pinpoint the important role played by the existence of two materials and of energetical traps in the slow recombination and high recombination orders observed in the blend. This work has been published in the Journal of Applied Physics.[6]
Those new insights in the photophysics of polymer:fullerene photoactive layers could have a strong impact on the future developement of those materials. Consistent measurements of the binding energy of excitons and intermediate species, would enable to clarify the role played by excess thermal energy in interfacial states dissociation. Better understanding of blends
morphology and its influence on solar cells parameters and in particular on recombination could enable to reproduce the conditions of limited recombination on material systems offering some promising performances but with only limited active layer thicknesses. However, due to the number of parameters involved, further experimentation is required, before we can reach a quantitative modeling of bimolecular recombination.
[1] Deibel et al., Phys. Rev. B, 81:085202, 2010
[2] Gorenflot et al., Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft Frühjahrstagung 2010, CPP20:10, Regensburg, Germany, 2010
[3] Gorenflot et al., International Conference of Synthetic Metals, 7Ax:05, Kyoto, Japan, 2010
[4] Marie-Curie RTN "SolarNTyp" Contract No. MRTN-CT-2006-035533
[5] Gorenflot et al., Synth. Met., 161(23{24):2669-2676, 2012
[6] Gorenflot et al., J. Appl. Phys., 115(14):144502, 2014
This thesis describes the epitaxial growth of the Half-Heusler alloy NiMnSb by molecular beam epitaxy. Its structural and magnetic properties are controlled by tuning the composition and the resulting small deviation from stoichiometry. The magnetic in-plane anisotropy depends on the Mn concentration of the sample and can be controlled in both strength and orientation. This control of the magnetic anisotropy allows for growing NiMnSb layers of a given thickness and magnetic properties as requested for the design of NiMnSb-based devices. The growth and characterization of NiMnSb-ZnTe-NiMnSb heterostructures is presented - such heterostructures form an all-NiMnSb based spin-valve and are a promising basis for spin torque devices.
The present thesis “Hot spin carriers in cold semiconductors” investigates hot carrier effects in low-temperature photoinduced magneto-optical Kerr effect (MOKE) microscopy of electron spins in semiconductor heterostructures. Our studies reveal that the influence of hot photocarriers in magneto-optical pump-probe experiments is twofold.
First, it is commonly assumed that a measurement of the local Kerr rotation using an arbitrary probe wavelength maps the local electron spin polarization. This is the fundamental assumption that underlies the widely used two-color MOKE microscopy technique. Our continuous-wave (cw) spectroscopy experiments demonstrate that this assumption is not correct.
At low lattice temperatures the nonresonant spin excitation by the focused pump laser inevitably leads to a strong heating of the electron system. This heating, in turn, locally modifies the magneto-optical coefficient which links the experimentally observed Kerr rotation to the electron spin polarization. As a consequence, the spin-induced local Kerr rotation is augmented by spin-unrelated changes in the magneto-optical coefficient. A spatially resolved measurement of the Kerr rotation then does not correctly map the electron spin polarization profile.
We demonstrate different ways to overcome this limitation and to correctly measure the electron spin profile. For cw spectroscopy we show how the true local electron spin polarization can be obtained from a quantitative analysis of the full excitonic Kerr rotation spectrum. Alternatively, picosecond MOKE microscopy using a spectrally broad probe laser pulse mitigates hot-carrier effects on the magneto-optical spin detection and allows to directly observe the time-resolved expansion of optically excited electron spin packets in real-space.
Second, we show that hot photocarriers strongly modify the spin diffusion process. Owing to their high kinetic energy, hot carriers greatly enhance the electron spin diffusion coefficient with respect to the intrinsic value of the undisturbed system. Therefore, for steady-state excitation the spin diffusivity is strongly enhanced close to the pump spot center where hot electrons are present. Similarly, for short delays following pulsed excitation the high initial temperature of the electrons leads to a very fast initial expansion of the spin packet which gradually slows as the electrons cool down to the lattice temperature.
While few previous publications have recognized the possible influence of hot carriers on the electron spin transport properties, the present work is the first to directly observe and quantify such hot carrier contributions. We develop models which for steady-state and pulsed excitation quantitatively describe the experimentally observed electron spin diffusion. These models are capable of separating the intrinsic spin diffusivity from the hot electron contribution, and allow to obtain spin transport parameters of the undisturbed system.
We perform extensive cw and time-resolved spectroscopy studies of the lattice temperature dependence of the electron spin diffusion in bulk GaAs. Using our models we obtain a consistent set of parameters for the intrinsic temperature dependence of the electron spin diffusion coefficient and spin relaxation time and the hot carrier contributions which quantitatively describes all experimental observations. Our analysis unequivocally demonstrates that we have, as we believe for the first time, arrived at a coherent understanding of photoinduced low-temperature electron spin diffusion in bulk semiconductors.
Ausgehend von mittels Molekularstrahlepitaxie im InGaAs/InAlAs/InP Materialsystem gewachsenen Lasermedien wurden monochromatische Quantenkaskadenlaser für die GasSensorik mit Emission im mittleren Infrarot entworfen, hergestellt und charakterisiert. Vorrangige Ziele waren hierbei die Entwicklung von leistungsstarken monomodigen Lasern im langwelligen Spektralbereich um 14 µm, sowie von Bauteilen mit weiter und schneller spektraler Abstimmbarkeit.
Für den Entwurf der Laserstege wurde zunächst die zeitliche Entwicklung der Temperaturverteilung für verschiedene Varianten von Wellenleitern sowohl im gepulsten als auch im kontinuierlichen Betrieb simuliert. Anhand der berechneten thermischen Bauteilwiderstände konnten so geeignete Prozessparameter für die Herstellung der Laserstrukturen ermittelt werden
Zur Herstellung von monochromatischen DFB-Lasern auf Basis eines MesaWellenleiters mit Seitenwandgittern wurde ein Prozess entwickelt, der sich - im Vergleichzu gängigen Verfahren zur Strukturierung von DFB-Gittern - durch eine stark reduzierte Anzahl an Verfahrenschritten und eine schnelle und einfache Durchführbarkeit auszeichnet. Für Laser mit 4 mm Länge und 14 µm mittlerer Breite wurde eine Spitzenleistung über 200 mW bei einer externen Effizienz von 330 mW/A und einer Schwellstromdichte von 2,1 kA/cm^2 bei Raumtemperatur bestimmt.
DFB-Laser um 14 µm, welche - durch die große Wellenlänge bedingt – höhere Schwellstromdichten aufweisen, wurden dagegen auf Basis von nasschemisch geätzten Doppelkanal-Wellenleitern mit in die Oberseite des Steges geätzten Gittern und dickem Gold auf den Stegflanken hergestellt, um eine bessere laterale Wärmeabfuhr zu erreichen. Basierend auf der Analyse des Strahlprofils und des Emissionsspektrums war trotz der großen Stegbreite ausschließlich Betrieb auf der Grundmode zu beobachten. So konnte eine Spitzenleistung von 810 mW bei einer Schwellstromdichte von 4,3 kA/cm^2 bei Raumtemperatur erreicht werden.
Um eine größere spektrale Abstimmbarkeit zu erreichen als dies mit DFB-Lasern möglich ist, wurde ein Lasertyp auf Basis von zwei gekoppelten Fabry-P erot Kavitäten entworfen, hergestellt und untersucht. Mit diesem Konzept konnte über eine geringe Stromvariation ein Umschalten zwischen verschiedenen Resonanzen erreicht werden, was bei konstanter Temperatur der Wärmesenke um Raumtemperatur einen Abstimmbereich von 5,2 cm^−1 ermöglichte. Unter Einbeziehung einer Variation der Temperatur der Wärmesenke konnte monomodige Emission in einem Spektralbereich von 52 cm^−1 erreicht und die Tauglichkeit der Laser für die Gas-Sensorik anhand einer Absorptionsmessung an Ammoniak demonstriert werden.
Da die monomodige Spitzenleistung dieser Laser jedoch konzeptbedingt auf wenige mW beschränkt war, wurde für den Einsatz weit abstimmbarer Laser in der Spurengasanalytik im letzten Teil der Arbeit ein anderer Lasertyp mit flachgeätztem Bragg-Reflektor entwickelt. Durch sorgfältige Wahl der Gitterparameter und ein spezielles Puls-Schema wurde eine über 30 cm^−1 quasi-kontinuierlich abstimmbare, monomodige Emission erreicht. Die Stabilität und die spektrale Reinheit des Laserlichts mit einer Seitenmodunterdrückung von mehr als 30 dB konnte anhand von zeitaufgelösten Messungen des Abstimmvorgangs und durch ein Absorptionsexperiment mit Ethen belegt werden. Die erzielte spektrale Auflösung war durch die Messelektronik begrenzt und betrug 0,0073 cm^-1. Zudem ergab sich auch die Möglichkeit einer Analyse des thermischen Übersprechens, welche einen vernachlässigbaren Einfluss für den Pulsbetrieb der Laser zeigte und eine moderate Erwärmung benachbarter Segmente um 10% des für das vorsätzlich beheizte Segment gemessenen Wertes. Des Weiteren konnte dank der Möglichkeit zur unabhängigen Strominjektion in verschiedene Sektionen die Temperaturabhängigkeit von Verstärkung und Absorption im Resonator untersucht werden. Herausstechende Eigenschaften dieser Laser wie die Verringerung der gepulsten Chirprate im Vergleich zu DFB-Lasern um den Faktor 3 konnten anhand von systematischen Untersuchungen mit einer Vielzahl von Bauteilen analysiert und auf die zeitlicheTemperaturentwicklung bzw. die räumliche Temperaturverteilung im Lasersteg zurückgeführt werden. Die optische Spitzenleistung von 600 mW und externe Effizienzen bis 300mW/A sollten auch den Einsatz in der Spurengasanalyse erlauben, die hohe Geschwindigkeit mit der die Emissionswellenlänge variiert werden kann, überdies die Untersuchung der Reaktionskinetik in der Gasphase.
Recently a new state of matter was discovered in which the bulk insulating state in a material is accompanied by conducting surface or edge states. This new state of matter can be distinguished from a conventional insulator phase by the topological properties of its band structure which led to the name "topological insulators". Experimentally, topological insulator states are mostly found in systems characterized by a band inversion compared to conventional systems. In most topological insulator systems, this is caused by a combination of energetically close bands and spin orbit coupling. Such properties are found in systems with heavy elements like Hg and Bi. And indeed, the first experimental discovery of a topological insulator succeeded in HgTe quantum wells and later also in BiSb bulk systems.
Topological insulators are of large interest due to their unique properties: In 2-dimensional topological insulators one dimensional edge states form without the need of an external magnetic field (in contrast to the quantum Hall effect). These edge states feature a linear band dispersion, a so called Dirac dispersion. The quantum spin Hall states are helical edge states, which means they consist of counterpropagating oppositely spin polarized edge channels. They are therefore of great potential for spintronic applications as well as building blocks for new more exotic states like Majorana Fermions. 3-dimensional topological insulators feature 2-dimensional surface states with only one Dirac band (also called Dirac cone) on each surface and an interesting spin texture where spin and momentum are locked perpendicular to each other in the surface plane. This unique surface band structure is predicted to be able to host several exotic states like e.g. Majorana Fermions (in combination with superconductors) and magnetic monopole like excitations.
This PhD thesis will summarize the discovery of topological insulators and highlights the developments on their experimental observations. The work focuses on HgTe which is up to now the only topological insulator material where the expected properties are unambiguously demonstrated in transport experiments. In HgTe, the topological insulator properties arise from the inversion of the Gamma_6 and Gamma_8 bands. The band inversion in HgTe is due to a combination of a high spin orbit splitting in Te and large energy corrections (due to the mass-velocity term) to the energy levels in Hg. Bulk HgTe, however, is a semimetal, which means for the conversion into a topological insulator a band gap has to be opened. In two dimensions (HgTe quantum well structures) this is achieved via quantum confinement, which opens a band gap between the quantum well subbands. In three dimensions, strain is used to lift the degeneracy of the semimetallic Gamma_8 bands opening up a band gap.
The thesis is structured as follows:
- The first chapter of this thesis will give a brief overview on discoveries in the field of topological insulators. It focuses on works relevant to experimental results presented in the following chapters. This includes a short outline of the early predictions and a summary of important results concerning 2-dimensional topological insulators while the final section discusses observations concerning 3-dimensional topological insulators.
- The discovery of the quantum spin Hall effect in HgTe marked the first experimental observation of a topological insulator. Chapter 2 will focus on HgTe quantum wells and the quantum spin Hall effect.
Above a critical thickness, HgTe quantum wells are predicted to host the quantum spin Hall state, the signature of a 2-dimensional topological insulator. HgTe quantum wells exhibiting low carrier concentrations and at the same time high carrier mobilities are required to be able to measure the quantum spin Hall effect. The growth of such high quality HgTe quantum wells was one of the major goals for this work. Continuous optimization of the substrate preparation and growth conditions resulted in controlled carrier densities down to a few 10^10 cm^-2. At the same time, carrier mobilities exceeding 1 x 10^6 cm^2/Vs have been achieved, which provides mean free paths of several micrometers in the material. Thus the first experimental evidence for the existence of the quantum spin Hall edge states succeeded in transport experiments on microstructures: When the Fermi energy was located in the bulk band gap a residual quantized resistance of 2e^2/h was found. Further experiments focused on investigating the nature of transport in this regime. By non-local measurements the edge state character could be established. The measured non-local resistances corresponded well with predictions from the Landauer-Büttiker theory applied to transport in helical edge channels.
In a final set of experiments the spin polarization of the edge channels was investigated. Here, we could make use of the advantage that HgTe quantum well structures exhibit a large Rashba spin orbit splitting. In systems with a large Rashba spin orbit splitting a spin accumulation is expected to occur at the edge of the sample perpendicular to a current flow. This so-called spin Hall effect was then used as a spin injector and detector. Using split gate devices it was possible to bring spin Hall and quantum spin Hall state into direct contact, which enabled an all electrical detection of the spin polarization of the quantum spin Hall edge channels.
- HgTe as a 3-dimensional topological insulator will be presented in chapter 3. Straining the HgTe layer enables the observation of topological insulator behavior. It was found that strain can be easily implemented during growth by using CdTe substrates. CdTe has a slightly larger lattice constant than HgTe and therefore leads to tensile strain in the HgTe layer as long as the growth is pseudomorphic. Magnetotransport studies showed the emergence of quantum Hall transport with characteristic signatures of a Dirac type bandstructure. Thus, this result marks the first observation of the quantum Hall effect in the surface states of a 3-dimensional topological insulator.
Transport experiments on samples fitted with a top gate enabled the identification of contributions from individual surfaces. Furthermore, the surface state quantum Hall effect was found to be surprisingly stable, perturbations due to additional bulk transport could not be found, even at high carrier densities of the system.
- Chapters 4 - 6 serve as in depth overviews of selected works: Chapter 4 presents a detailed overview on the all electrical detection of the spin Hall effect in HgTe quantum wells. The detection of the spin polarization of the quantum spin Hall effect is shown in chapter 5 and chapter 6 gives a detailed overview on the quantum Hall effect originating from the topological surface state in strained bulk HgTe.
The investigations discussed in this thesis pioneered the experimental work on the transport properties of topological insulator systems. The understanding of the fundamental properties of topological insulators enables new experiments in which e.g. the inclusion of magnetic dopants or the interplay between topological insulator and superconductors can be investigated in detail.
This thesis presents the detailed development of the fabrication process and the first observations of artificial magnetic atoms from the II-VI diluted magnetic semiconductor alloy (Zn,Cd,Be,Mn)Se. In order to manufacture the vertical quantum dot device which exhibits artificial atom behavior a number of development steps are conducted. First, the II-VI heterostructure is adjusted for the linear transport regime. Second, state of the art vertical quantum dot fabrication techniques in the III-V material system are investigated regarding their portability to the II-VI heterostructure. And third, new approaches to the fabrication process are developed, taking into account the complexity of the heterostructure and its physical properties. Finally a multi-step fabrication process is presented, which is built up from electron beam and optical lithography, dry and wet etching and insulator deposition. This process allows for the processing of pillars with diameters down to 200 nm with an insulating dielectric and gate. Preliminary transport data on the fabricated vertical quantum dots are presendted confirming the magnetic nature of the resulting artificial atoms.
The discovery of the Giant Magneto Resistance (GMR) effect in 1988 by Albert Fert [Baib 88] and Peter Grünberg [Bina 89] led to a rapid development of the field of spintronics and progress in the information technology. Semiconductor based spintronics, which appeared later, offered a possibility to combine storage and processing in a single monolithic device. A direct result is reduced heat dissipation. The observation of the spin Seebeck effect by Ushida [Uchi 08] in 2008 launched an increased interest and encouraged research in the field of spin caloritronics. Spintronics is about the coupling of charge and spin transport. Spin caloritronics studies the interaction between heat and spin currents. In contrast to spintronics and its variety of applications, a particular spin-caloritronic device has not yet been demonstrated. However, many of the novel phenomena in spin caloritronics can be detected in most spintronic devices. Moreover, thermoelectric effects might have a significant influence on spintronic device operation. This will be of particular interest for this work. Additional knowledge on the principle of coupling between heat and spin currents uncovers an alternative way to control heat dissipation and promises new device functionalities.
This thesis aims to further extend the knowledge on thermoelectrics in materials with strong spin-orbit coupling, in this case the prototypical ferromagnetic semiconductor (Ga,Mn)As. The study is focused on the thermoelectric / thermomagnetic effects at the interface between a normal metal and the ferromagnetic (Ga,Mn)As. In such systems, the different interfaces provide a condition for minimal phonon drag contribution to the thermal effects. This suggests that only band contributions (a diffusion transport regime) to these effects will be measured.
Chapter 2 begins with an introduction on the properties of the studied material system, and basics on thermoelectrics and spin caloritronics. The characteristic anisotropies of the (Ga,Mn)As density of states (DOS) and the corresponding magnetic properties are described. The DOS and magnetic anisotropies have an impact on the transport prop- erties of the material and that results in effects like tunneling anisotropic magnetores- istance (TAMR) [Goul 04]. Some of these effects will be used later as a reference to the results from thermoelectric / thermomagnetic measurements. The Fingerprint tech- nique [Papp 07a] is also described. The method gives an opportunity to easily study the anisotropies of materials in different device geometries.
Chapter 3 continues with the experimental observation of the diffusion thermopower of (Ga,Mn)As / Si-doped GaAs tunnel junction. A device geometry for measuring the diffusion thermopower is proposed. It consists of a Si - doped GaAs heating channel with a Low Temperature (LT) GaAs / (Ga,Mn)As contact (junction) in the middle of the channel. A single Ti / Au contact is fabricated on the top of the junction. For transport characterization, the device is immersed in liquid He. A heating current technique is used to create a temperature difference by local heating of the electron system on the Si:GaAs side. An AC current at low frequency is sent through the channel and it heats the electron population in it, while the junction remains at liquid He temperature (experimentally con- firmed). A temperature difference arises between the heating channel and the (Ga,Mn)As contact. As a result, a thermal (Seebeck) voltage develops across the junction, which we call tunnelling anisotropic magneto thermopower (TAMT), similar to TAMR. TAMT is detected by means of a standard lock-in technique at double the heating current frequency (at 2f ). The Seebeck voltage is found to be linear with the temperature difference. That dependence suggests a diffusion transport regime. Lattice (phonon drag) contribution to the thermovoltage, which is usually highly nonlinear with temperature, is not observed.
The value of the Seebeck coefficient of the junction at 4.2 K is estimated to be 0.5 µV/K.
It is about three orders of magnitude smaller than the previously reported one [Pu 06]. Subsequently, the thermal voltage is studied in external magnetic fields. It is found that the thermopower is anisotropic with the magnetization direction. The anisotropy is explained with the anisotropies of the (Ga,Mn)As contact. Further, switching events are detected in the thermopower when the magnetic field is swept from negative to positive fields. The switchings remind of a spin valve signal and is similar to the results from previous experiments on spin injection using a (Ga,Mn)As contacts in a non-local detection scheme. That shows the importance of the thermoelectric effects and their possible contribution to the spin injection measurements. A polar plot of the collected switching fields for different magnetization angles reveals a biaxial anisotropy and resembles earlier TAMR measurements of (Ga,Mn)As tunnel junction. A simple cartoon model is introduced to describe and estimate the expected thermopower of the studied junction. The model yields a Fermi level inside of the (Ga,Mn)As valence band. Moreover, the model is found to be in good agreement with the experimental results.
The Nernst effect of a (Ga,Mn)As / GaAs tunnel junction is studied in Chapter 4. A modified device geometry is introduced for this purpose. Instead of a single contact on the top of the square junction, four small contacts are fabricated to detect the Nernst signal. A temperature difference is maintained by means of a heating current technique described in Chapter 3. A magnetic field is applied parallel to the device plane. A voltage drop across two opposite contacts is detected at 2f. It appears that a simple cosine function with a parameter the angle between the magnetization and the [100] crystal direction in the (Ga,Mn)As layer manages to describe this signal which is attributed to the anomalous Nernst effect (ANE) of the ferromagnetic contact. Its symmetry is different than the Seebeck effect of the junction. For the temperature range of the thermopower measurements the ANE coefficient has a linear dependence on the temperature difference (∆T). For higher ∆T, a nonlinear dependence is observed for the coefficient. The ANE coefficient is found to be several orders of magnitude smaller than any Nernst coefficient in the literature. Both the temperature difference and the size of the ANE coefficient require further studies and analysis. Switching events are present in the measured Nernst signal when the magnetic field is swept from positive to negative values. These switchings are related to the switching fields in the ferromagnetic (Ga,Mn)As. Usually, there are two states which are present in TAMR or AMR measurements - low and high resistance. Instead of that, the Nernst signal appears to have three states - high, middle and low thermomagnetic voltage. That behaviour is governed not only by the magnetization, but also by the characteristic of the Nernst geometry.
Chapter 5 summarizes the main observations of this thesis and contains ideas for future work and experiments.
Die vorliegende Arbeit beschreibt die Charakterisierung von Halbleiter-Quantenpunkten (QP) in unterschiedlichen Materialsystemen. Die hier dargelegten Untersuchungen wurden mit verschiedenen Methoden der optischen Spektroskopie durchgeführt. Zu Beginn der Arbeit werden theoretische Grundlagen von QP hinsichtlich ihrer elektronischen Struktur und statistischen Eigenschaften erläutert. Darüber hinaus wird näher auf die Physik von Solarzellen eingegangen, in dem die relevanten Gleichungen für die Beschreibung des Ladungsträgertransportes hergeleitet und diskutiert werden.
Darauf folgend werden die experimentelle Methoden erklärt, welche zur Charakterisierung der jeweiligen Proben dienten. Besonderes Augenmerk wird auf die Methode zur Messung des Zwei-Photonen-Absorptionsprozesses gelegt.
Der Abschnitt der experimentell gewonnenen Ergebnisse beginnt mit Untersuchungen an einzelnen, spektral isolierten InP QP, welche mit ultralangsamen Wachstumsraten hergestellt wurden. Aufgrund der sehr geringen Flächendichte konnten grundlegende physikalische Eigenschaften von QP ohne zusätzliche laterale Strukturierungen studiert werden. Mittels Messungen in Abhängigkeit der Anregungsleistung und Detektion in Abhängigkeit der Polarisation konnten die verschiedenen Lumineszenzlinien eines QP-Spektrums den jeweiligen exzitonischen Zuständen zugeordnet werden. Zusätzlich wurden die QP in einem externen Magnetfeld in Faraday-Konfiguration untersucht. Abschließend durchgeführte Autokorrelationsmessungen erlaubten die Untersuchung der zeitlichen Statistik der QP-Photonen. Es konnte die Emission einzelner Photonen nachgewiesen werden.
Anschließend folgen spektroskopische Untersuchungen von InP QP, welche mittels sequentiellen Wachstums hergestellt wurden. Anhand von Messungen in Abhängigkeit der Anregungsleistung und bestätigt durch zeitaufgelöste Messungen am QP-Ensemble wurde eine bimodale QP-Verteilung mit Typ-I und Typ-II Bandverlauf bestimmt. Zusätzlich konnten an einzelnen, spektral isolierten QP verschiedene Exziton-Zustände identifiziert werden, bevor abschließend Autokorrelationsmessungen die Emission einzelner Photonen demonstrierten.
Zur Steigerung der Auskoppeleffizienz der Photonen wurden InP QP in Mikrosäulenresonatoren, bestehend aus zwei Bragg-Spiegeln mit einer dazwischenliegenden GaInP Kavität, eingebettet. Anfangs wurde die Emission der Kavitätsmode von Strukturen mit unterschiedlichen lateralen Durchmessern charakterisiert. Mittels Temperaturverstimmung konnte die Energie eines einzelnen QP-Exzitons in Resonanz mit der Resonatormode gebracht werden. Im Regime der schwachen Wechselwirkung wurde eine signifikante Überhöhung der Lumineszenzintensität aufgrund des Purcell-Effektes gemessen. Zusätzlich wurde im Regime der schwachen Kopplung die Emission einzelner Photonen anhand von Korrelationsmessungen nachgewiesen. Im zweiten Schritt wurden die QP-Mikrosäulenresonatorstrukturen elektrisch angeregt. Nach einer grundlegenden Charakterisierung konnte auch hier mittels Temperaturverstimmung die Energie der Resonatormode mit der eines Exziton in Resonanz gebracht werden. Im Regime der schwachen Wechselwirkung stieg die Intensität der Lumineszenz aufgrund des Purcell-Effekts signifikant an. Zum Abschluss bestätigen Korrelationsmessungen den Nachweis der Emission einzelner Photonen.
In Kapitel 6 werden die Eigenschaften von InGaN QP genauer analysiert. Nitrid-Verbindungshalbleiter kristallieren vorzugsweise stabil in der Wurtzit-Kristallstruktur. Polare Kristallebenen mit fehlender Spiegelsymmetrie führen zu starken piezoelektrischen Feldern. Dies hat eine Lumineszenz mit ausgeprägter linearer Polarisation zur Folge hat. Diese Eigenschaft wurde mittels statistischen Untersuchungen näher betrachtet. Zusätzlich erlaubten Messungen in Abhängigkeit der Anregungsleistung die verschiedenen Exziton-Zustände eines QP zu identifizieren. Zudem wurde die Emission einzelner Photonen durch InGaN QP demonstriert, erstmals sogar bis zu einer Temperatur von 50 K.
Im abschliessenden Kapitel wird eine mögliche Anwendung von QP präsentiert, bei der Eigenschaften in Bauteilen gezielt ausgenutzt werden, um die Bandbreite der Photonenabsorption zu erhöhen. Das Konzept der Zwischenband-Solarzellen verspricht auch Photonen mit einer Energie kleiner der Bandlücke des umgebenden Materials aufnehmen zu können und somit den spektralen Absorptionsbereich zu erweitern. Für eine systematische Untersuchung wurden verschiedene Proben mit integrierten AlGaInAs QP hergestellt. Anhand der Strom-Spannungs-Kennlinien der jeweiligen Proben im Dunkeln und unter Beleuchtung konnten wichtige Solarzellenparameter bestimmt werden. Spektrale Messungen liefern Informationen über die externe Quanteneffizienz der Proben. Entscheidend für den experimentellen Nachweis des Funktionsprinzips der Zwischenband-Solarzellen ist die Messung der Zwei-Photonen-Absorption für zwei Photonen mit jeweils kleineren Energien als der Bandlücke des umgebenden Materials.
Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Licht-Materie-Wechselwirkung in Quantenpunkt-Mikroresonatoren und deren vertikalen und lateralen Emissionseigenschaften. Quantenpunkte sind nanoskopische Strukturen, in denen die Beweglichkeit der Ladungsträger unterhalb der de-Broglie-Wellenlänge eingeschränkt ist, wodurch die elektronische Zustandsdichte diskrete Werte annimmt. Sie werden daher auch als künstliche Atome bezeichnet. Um die Emissionseigenschaften der Quantenpunkte zu modifizieren, werden sie im Rahmen dieser Arbeit als aktive Schicht in Mikrosäulenresonatoren eingebracht. Diese bestehen aus einer GaAs lambda-Kavität, die zwischen zwei Braggspiegeln aus alternierenden GaAs und AlAs Schichten eingefasst ist. Diese Resonatoren bieten sowohl eine vertikale Emission über Fabry-Perot Moden, als auch eine laterale Emission über Flustergaleriemoden. Die Licht-Materie-Wechselwirkung zwischen den Resonatormoden und lokalisierten Ladungsträgern in den Quantenpunkten, genannt Exzitonen, kann in zwei Regime unterteilt werden. Im Regime der starken Kopplung wird der spontane Emissionsprozess in einem Quantenpunkt reversibel und das emittierte Photon kann wieder durch den Quantenpunkt absorbiert werden. Die theoretische Beschreibung der Kopplung eines Exzitons an die Resonatormode erfolgt über das Jaynes-Cummings Modell und kann im Tavis-Cummings Modell auf mehrere Emitter erweitert werden. Ist die Dämpfung des Systems zu gross, so befindet man sich im Regime der schwachen Kopplung, in dem die Emissionsrate des Quantenpunkts durch den Purcell-Effekt erhöht werden kann. In diesem Regime können Mikrolaser mit hohen Einkopplungsraten der spontanen Emission in die Resonatormode und niedrigen Schwellpumpströmen realisiert werden. Zur Charakterisierung der Proben werden vor allem die Methoden der Mikro-Elektrolumineszenz und der Photonenkorrelationsmessungen eingesetzt.
In the field of organic photovoltaics, one of the most intensely researched topics to date is the charge carrier photogeneration in organic bulk heterojunction solar cells whose thorough understanding is crucial for achieving higher power conversion efficiencies. In particular, the mechanism of singlet exciton dissociation at the polymer–fullerene interface is still controversially debated.
This work addresses the dissociation pathway via relaxed charge transfer states (CTS) by investigating its field dependence for reference material systems consisting of MDMO-PPV and one of the fullerene derivatives PC61BM, bisPCBM and PC71BM. Field dependent photoluminescence (PL(F)) and transient absorption (TA(F)) measurements give insight into the recombination of charge transfer excitons (CTE) and the generation of polarons, respectively. Optically detected magnetic resonance and atomic force microscopy are used to characterize the morphology of the samples.
The comparison of the experimental field dependent exciton recombination recorded by PL(F) and the theoretical exciton dissociation probability given by the Onsager–Braun model yields the exciton binding energy as one of the key parameters determining the dissociation efficiency. The binding energies of both the singlet exciton in neat MDMO-PPV and the CTE in MDMO-PPV:PC61BM 1:1 are extracted, the latter turning out to be significantly reduced with respect to the one of the singlet exciton.
Based on these results, the field dependence of CTE dissociation is evaluated for MDMO-PPV:PC61BM blends with varying fullerene loads by PL(F) and TA(F). For higher PC61BM contents, the CTE binding energies decrease notably. This behavior is ascribed to a larger effective dielectric constant for well-intermixed blends and to an interplay between dielectric constant and CTE delocalization length for phase separated morphologies, emphasizing the importance of high dielectric constants for the charge carrier photogeneration process.
Finally, the CTE binding energies are determined for MDMO-PPV blends with different fullerene derivatives, focusing on the influence of the acceptor LUMO energy. Here, the experimental results suggest the latter having no or at least no significant impact on the binding energy of the CTE. Variations of this binding energy are rather related to different trap levels in the acceptors which seem to be involved in CTS formation.
Elektrooptische Transporteigenschaften und stochastisch aktivierte Prozesse Resonanter Tunneldioden
(2012)
Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden elektrooptische Transporteigenschaften und stochastisch aktivierte Prozesse Resonanter Tunneldioden (RTDs) bei Raumtemperatur untersucht. Die RTDs wurden auf dem III-V Halbleitermaterialsystem AlGaAs/GaAs durch Molekularstrahlepitaxie, Elektronenstrahllithographie und trockenchemischen Ätztechniken hergestellt. Im Bereich des negativen differentiellen Leitwerts konnte bistabi-les Schalten und hierbei stochastisch aktivierte Dynamik nichtlinearer Systeme untersucht werden. Die Flächenabhängigkeit der Ätzrate konnte ausgenutzt werden, um RTDs mit einem Stamm und zwei Transportästen zu realisieren, welche hinsichtlich ihrer optischen und elektrischen Eigenschaften untersucht wurden. Im ersten experimentellen Abschnitt 3.1 werden die elektrischen Transporteigenschaften Resonanter Tunneldioden bei Raum-temperatur und die Flächenabhängigkeit des kohärenten und nicht-kohärenten Elektronen-transports analysiert. Die Realisierung universeller logischer Gatter (NOR und NAND) und deren Rekonfigurierbarkeit durch einen externen Kontrollparameter wird in Abschnitt 3.2 gezeigt. In Abschnitt 3.3 wird die Lichtsensitivität Resonanter Tunneldioden als Photode-tektoren für den sichtbaren Wellenlängenbereich und in Abschnitt 3.4 für die Telekommu-nikationswellenlänge bei λ = 1,3 µm demonstriert.